A CHRONOLOGY OF THE COMMON ERA

A CHRONOLOGY OF THE COMMON ERA
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Compiled from sources on the internet and edited by Dimitris Sivyllis

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YEAR C.E.	MILESTONES & EVENTS OF THE COMMON ERA	POPES in ROME	EMPERORS in ROME	PATRIARCHS in CONSTANTINOPLE	EMPERORS in CONSTANTINOPLE	MONARCHY, PRIME MINISTERS in BRITAIN	RULERS and PRESIDENTS of FRANCE	THE WORLD
	Birth of Jesus of Nazareth placed at 4 BCE
1	Common Era Begins	Anno Domini (AD) years begin to be counted							1
14	Augustus dies.		Tiberius						14
26	26-36 Pontius Pilate governor of Judea. John the Baptist is executed on orders from Herod Antipas. c. 26-29: Jesus of Nazareth travels around Judea and Galilee attracting discliples and crowds to his message of love and care for one another. Accounts of his disciples and followers, his parables and miracles, the opposition to his teaching, and his prophecies about his own fate, are collected by his disciples according to the oral tradition of the time.								26
29	Jesus of Nazareth crucified in Jerusalem Jesus' birth is estimated at 4 BCE; If the date for the death of John the Baptist is accurate at 26 CE, the crucifixion of Jesus must have taken place at 29 CE and he must have been 33 years of age. After the crucifiction, the Apostles begin spreading the teachings of Jesus, first in Judea and Galillee, then to the gentiles in Greece, Rome and elsewhere. The Apostle Paul (Saul) first uses the Greek word "Hristos" (Christ) to describe Jesus as the "Messiah" (Christ means Messiah in Greek) while preaching to the gentiles in Antioch. During the first decade after Jesus' crucifixion the church that grows in His name is split between those who follow James, brother of Jesus, and Peter, His favoprite disciple, who maintain that followers should abide by the Laws of Moses and be circumcised, and, the followers of Paul, mainly gentiles. Paul makes a passionate case at the First Apostolic Counsel for accepting gentiles into the faith but without forcing the Law of Moses to the letter upon them. Paul, arguably, is solely responsible for the fact that the teachings of Jesus, as told by Paul, reached the gentiles in Greece and Rome. Christianity, as it becomes known after the first decades, is seeded and will flourish within Judaism until the execution of James, brother of Jesus, and then among gentiles in Antioch, Athens, Ephesus, Corinth, Rome, Byzantium and elsewhere until the Third Century and subsequently evolve into a new religion in 325 CE with the establishment of The Creed of Faith. During the first two centuries of the Common Era Christian communities are established around the Mediterranean basin. The first Christians celebrate family suppers in memory of Jesus' Last Supper with the disciples before his crucifiction. This practice gives birth to the traditions which will eventually evolve into the Holy Litourgy (Mass) and the sharing of wine and bread to represent the Blood and Body of Christ. A tradition which culminates in the mystery of Eucharist (Communion) during litourgy, where it is believed that the offerings of wine and bread are transformed into the Blood and Body of Christ After the death of the Apostles Christian communities gradually develop their own separate theology, dogma and tradition, spreading the teachings of Christianity to all parts of the known world, throughout the Roman Empire. These rising variations on dogma and tradition will necessitate the First Oecumenical council which will be called by Emperor Constantine the Great, St. Constantine, in Nicea, near Constantinople, in 325 C.E. in order to proclaim one Creed of the Christian Faith.								29
36	Stephen the "deacon" is martyred; the Church scatters								36
37	Head of Christian Church at Byzantium (later Constantinople) named: BISHOP of BYZANTIUM Jonathon, a son of Annas (High Priest from AD6-15), replaces Annas' son-in-law Caiaphas as High Priest in Jerusalem. Paul makes his first visit as a Christian to Jerusalem. This follows his journey to Arabia and return to Damascus to preach (Galatians 1:17). Paul is forced to leave Jerusalem and goes to his home town of Tarsus (Acts 9:30)		Gaius (Caligula)	St. Andrew the Apostle					37
38	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM The conversion of Saul (later Paul) on the road to Damascus			Stachys the Apostle					38
39	Herod Antipas, tetrarch of Galilee and Perea, and his wife Herodias, are forced into exile in Gaul (France) by Caligula. Galilee and Perea are granted to King Herod Agrippa I to add to the territories already held since AD37								39
40	40-65 Missions of Paul and associates, especially to Gentiles The word Christians first used by Paul (Saul) to describe believers in Antioch AD40-50 - According to tradition, Matthew wrote the GOSPEL OF MATTHEW, originally in Aramaic.								40
41	King Herod Agrippa I is now granted Judea and Samaria by Claudius. The line of Roman procurators temporarily comes to an end. After just four years, Agrippa I's kingdom equals that of his grandfather, Herod the Great (37-4BC).		Claudius						41
42	Head of Christian Church at Rome named: BISHOP OF ROME Paul joins Barnabas to work with the established church in Syrian Antioch	1 St. Peter							42
43	Under Claudius, the Roman conquest of Britannia (Britain) begins								43
44	Herod Agrippa I, grandson of Herod the Great and son of the murdered Aristobulus is made king and granted Iturea and Trachonitis by his friend, the emperor Caligula. The territories were previously ruled by his deceased uncle, Philip. He is also granted Abilene, once ruled by Lysanias The apostle James, brother of John and son of Zebedee, is beheaded, and Peter imprisoned on the orders of King Herod Agrippa I (Acts 12:1-3) King Herod Agrippa I dies suddenly in Caesarea (Acts 12:23). His son, Agrippa II, is too young to rule, and all the Jewish provinces return to direct Roman control. Roman procurators are again appointed over Judea. Of Agrippa I's daughters, Drusilla later marries Felix, a Roman procurator of Judea (Acts 24:24), and Bernice becomes a close companion of her brother Agrippa II (Acts 25:13)								44
45	AD45-50 - The LETTER OF JAMES is written, probably by James, brother of Jesus, sometime before the Council held at Jerusalem in c AD49								45
46	Paul's first missionary journey c AD46-48								46
47	47-48 Paul and Barnabas on Cyprus [Acts 13, 4-12]								47
48	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM AD48 or 49 - Paul may have written his LETTER TO THE GALATIANS around this time from Syrian Antioch, or on the way to the Council of Jerusalem; otherwise c AD56 or 57								48
49	Apostolic Council held at Jerusalem Paul's second Missionary journey c AD49-52								49
50	50-95 Books of New Testament written Emperor Claudius expels the Jews from Rome Herod Agrippa II is old enough to be appointed king of Chalcis by emperor Claudius								50
51	AD49-52 (range, 2 to 4 years between AD48-54) - Paul and Silas leave Syrian Antioch for the SECOND MISSIONARY JOURNEY. They travel through Asia Minor (present day Turkey), before crossing to Macedonia (northern Greece). Paul then sails south to Corinth in Achaia (southern Greece) and stays for 18 months. Here he appears before the proconsul Gallio, and writes his FIRST and SECOND LETTERS TO THE THESSALONIANS. Sailing for Palestine, he calls in at Ephesus (western Turkey), before returning to Syrian Antioch via Jerusalem								51
52	AD50-60 - Oral traditions about the life and ministry of Jesus continue to be committed to writing, and collections assembled								52
53	Paul's third Missionary journey c AD53-58 From AD53, King Herod Agrippa II, exchanges Chalcis for parts of Iturea and Trachonitis, Galilee and Perea.								53
54	Claudius, Roman emperor, is poisoned, succeeded by Nero		Nero	Onesimus					54
58	c AD58-60 Paul's arrest in Jerusalem and imprisonment in Caesaria for trial before the procurator Felix. He is also seen by Drusilla, Felix's wife. Paul is kept in prison for two years								58
60	In Britannia, Boadicea, queen of the Iceni, revolts against Roman rule but is defeated and killed by the Roman governor Suetonius Paulinus Paul's journey to Rome and continued imprisonment c AD60-63. Paul sails for Rome, is shipwrecked on Malta where he stays for three months and meets Publius, the chief official. He continues on to Rome via Sicily. Paul under house arrest in Rome for two years. During these years, he writes his Letters to the Colossians, to philemon, to the Ephesians, and to the Philippians								60
63	Joseph of Arimathea came to Glastonbury on the first Christian mission to Britain								63
64	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM Paul's possible release from imprisonment in Rome c AD64-67 Paul may have been released from house arrest in Rome, and travelled to Spain?, Macedonia, Achaia, Crete, and Asia Minor (Turkey) c AD64-67 - The apostle Peter wrote the First Letter of Peter, and possibly the Second letter during this period c AD64 - During the persecutions that follow the fire, the apostles Peter and Paul may have been martyred. According to tradition Peter was crucified head downwards, and Paul beheaded, both in Rome. Paul, however, may have been on his further travels at this time, following his earlier release from house arrest, and Peter executed later Roman emperor Nero (37-68) accuses the Christians of having started the fire which destroyed large sections of Rome, thus initiating widespread persecution.								64
65	The Letter to Hebrews addressed to Jewish Christians may have been written about this time c AD65-70 - The Gospel Of Mark may have been written, traditionally in Rome, around the time of Peter's execution								65
66	If Paul was released, he would have written his First Letter to Timothy and his Letter to Titus around now, perhaps from the Macedonia area AD66-73 - Jewish war against Roman rule. The campaign in Judea is initially led by the Roman general Vespasian. Many Jews, and probably Christians leave Jerusalem								66
67	Paul is possibly re-arrested, taken to Rome, and sometime before execution, wrote his Second Letter to Timothy. The Letter to Jude, brother of James and thus Jesus, may have been written around this time, possibly in Palestine	2 St. Linus							67
68	Emperor Nero commits suicide cAD68-70 - The Book of Revelation may have been written at this time, following the persecutions of Nero, but before the Fall of Jerusalem. Otherwise Revelation was written towards the end of the 1st century. Qumran (Essenes?) community destroyed by Rome, site of Dead Sea Scrolls found in 1949								68
69			After Nero's suicide, Galba, Otho and Vitellius are emperors of Rome in quick succession	Polycarpus I					69
70	Jewish revolt, Sacking of Jerusalem by the Romans: Jerusalem is captured by Titus and the Temple destroyed Destruction of the Temple Diaspora begins Separation of Christianity from Judaism widens after capture of Jerusalem		Vespasian						70
73	Jewish resistance ends with the fall of the fortress of Masada, last remaining stronghold of Jewish Zealots								73
75	75-77 The Roman conquest of Britain is complete as Wales is finally subdued; Julius Agricola is imperial governor (to 84)								75
76		3 St. Anacletus							76
79	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM Mount Vesuvius catastrophic eruption. The Roman resort towns of Pompeii and Herculaneum are burried in the ashes, preserving a snapshot of Roman life for the millenia to come.								79
80	c. 80-100 Gospel of Matthew is composed.								80
81			Titus Domitian						81
88		4 St. Clement I							88
89			L. Antonius Saturninus	Plutarch					89
90	cAD90-100 - The First, Second and Third Letters of John are written by the apostle John from Ephesus								90
96			Nerva						96
97		5 St. Evaristus							97
98			Trajan						98
100	The apostle John, according to tradition, dies a natural death at Ephesus c. 100-125 Gospel of John is composed. 100-150 Writings of apostolic fathers show a concern with unity and good order of churches First London Bridge is built across the Thames by the Romans.								100
105	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM	6 St. Alexander I		Sedecion					105
112	Pliny, governor of Bithynia, consults Emperor Trajan on how to deal with those accused as Christians								112
114				Diogenes					114
115		7 St. Sixtus I							115
117	117-138: Hadrian emperor of Rome, improves defenses and codifies law.		Hadrian						117
122	Construction of Hadrian's Wall in Britain begins, to mark the northernmost border of the empire separating the areas that are today England and Scotland.								122
125		8 St. Telesphorus							125
129				Eleutherius					129
132	Shimeon Bar-Kokhba and Rabbi Akiba Ben-Joseph lead Jews in a revolt against Roman rule. They capture Jerusalem and create an independent state of Israel.								132
133	Julius Severus governor of Britain is sent to Palestine to crush the revolt								133
135	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM Julius Severus, formerly governor of Britain, crushes the revolt in Palestine. Final Diaspora (dispersion) of the Jews occurs.								135
136	The bishop of Rome, Hyginus, assumes the title of "pope"	9 St. Hyginus		Felix					136
138			Antoninus Pius						138
140	Justin founds school of Christian philosophy at Rome Shepherd of Hermas is written, presenting a highly developed system of bishops, deacons, and priests.	10 St. Pius I							140
141				Polycarpus II					141
144				Athendodorus					144
148				Euzois					148
150	Four "canonical" gospels are collected together. School of Alexandria is founded in Egypt, quickly becoming a major center for both Christian theology and Greek philosophy. Among its prominent teachers are the theologians Clement (died c. 215) and Origen (c. 185 - 254).								150
154				Laurence					154
155		11 St. Anicetus							155
161	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM		Marcus Aurelius						161
165	Justin's martyrdom								165
166	Roman Emporer Marcus Aurelius sends gifts to Chinese Emperor Huan Ti.			Alypius					166
167	At the request of King Lucius the missionaries Phagan and Deruvian were said to have been sent by Pope Eleutherius to convert the Britons to Christianity. This is perhaps the most widely believed of the legends of the founding of Christianity in Britain.								167
168		12 St. Soterus							168
169				Pertinax					169
170	Celsus writes True Word, the first book opposing Christianity								170
175		13 St. Eleutherius	Avidius Cassius						175
180	180-200 Irenaeus of Lyons preaches to Celts in Gaul, refuting gnosticism Clement heads school of "true gnosticism" in Alexandria Irenaeus (125 - c. 202), Catholic theologian, writes Against Heresies in an attempt to fight the spread of Gnosticism. He claimed that "every church must agree" with the church of Rome because of its apostolic authority. First African Christians are martyred at Scillium.		Commodus						180
184	Lucius Artorius Castus commander of a detachment of Sarmatian conscripts stationed in Britain led his troops to Gaul to quell a rebellion. This is the first appearance of the name Artorius in history and some believe that this Roman military man is the original or basis for the Arthurian legend. The theory says that Castus' exploits in Gaul at the head of a contingent of mounted troops are the basis for later similar traditions about "King Arthur and, further, that the name Artorius" became a title or honorific which was ascribed to a famous warrior in the fifth century.								184
187	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM			Olympians					187
189		14 St. Victor I							189
190	Christian council determine "official" date of Easter.								190
192			Pertinax						192
193			Didius Julianus						193
197	Tertullian begins writing apologetics in Carthage, Afica First recorded usage of the term "catholic" appears in the writings of Apollonius; used in reference to 1 John. The word ³catholic² in Greek means ³all encompassing² (uniqueness, no variation).								197
198				Mark I					198
199		5 St. Zephirinus							199
200	First mention of Christians in Britain New Testament canon is mostly fixed in currently known form.								200
203	Martyrdom of Perpetua and Felicitas in Carthage								203
208	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM Severus goes to defend Britain and repairs Hadrian's Wall								208
209	St. Alban first British martyr was killed for his faith in one of the few persecutions of Christians ever to take place on the island during the governorship of Gaius Junius Faustinus Postumianus								209
211			Antoninus (Caracalla)	Philadelphus					211
212	Origen begins traveling, commending Christianity to high ranking officials throughout the empire								212
215	Hippolytus of Rome compiles the Apostolic Tradition, describing how converts are to be discipled								215
217		16 St. Calixtus I	Macrinus	Ciriacus I					217
218			Diadumenianus						218
220	Goths invade Asia Minor								220
221		[Hippolytus]							221
222		17 St. Urban I	Severus Alexander						222
225	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM		L. Seius Sallustius						225
230	Pope Urban I justifies the ownership of property by the Church, the elevation of bishops and the excommunication of heretics	18 St. Pontianus		Castinus					230
231	Origen founds school at Caesarea (Palestine)								231
235		19 St. Anterius	Maximinus Thrax						235
236		20 St. Fabianus							236
237				Eugenius I					237
238			Gordian I						238
240	Gregory "the Wonder Worker" appointed bishop of Pontus (in north Asia Minor)		Sabinianus						240
242				Titus					242
244			Philip the Arab						244
246	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM Paul of Thebes retreats to the Egyptian desert and becomes the first Christian hermit								246
247			Philip Iunior						247
248	Cyprian appointed bishop of Carthage, the largest church in Africa, only two years after his conversion Origen defends Christianity in Against Celsus		Pacatianus						248
249			Decius						249
250	250-300: Increasing invasions of Rome by the Franks and the Goths Emperor Decius begins the first, though short-lived, general persecution of Christians								250
251		21 St. Cornelius							251
252		[Novatianus]							252
253		22 St. Lucius I							253
254		23 St. Stephen I							254
256	Gaul overrun by the Germans from the Rhine								256
257	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM	24 St. Sixtus II							257
259		25 St. Dionysius							259
260	260-305 Porphyry, a Neoplatonist philosopher, writes multivolume Against the Christians								260
264	A council excommunicates Paul of Samosata								264
268	Goths sack Athens, Corinth, and Sparta. Lucianus of Antioch (born in Samosata) preaches that Jesus was only a man		Claudius II Gothicus						268
269		26 St. Felix I	Laelianus						269
270	Monasticism begins to spread in Egypt and Syria, promoting Christianity in rural areas Anthony becomes a hermit in Egypt		Quintillus						270
271			Domitianus						271
272			Vaballathus	Dometius					272
273			Firmus						273
274	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM		Faustinus						274
275		27 St. Eutychianus	Tacitus						275
276	Mani is crucified by the Sassanids for tring to incorporate Judaism Christianity and Zoroastrianism into one religion ("manicheism")		Florianus						276
280			Bonosus						280
281			Saturninus						281
282			Carus						282
283		28 St. Caius	Numerianus						283
284			Diocletian	Rufinus I					284
285	Papa is ordained first bishop of Seleucia-Ctesiphon (the first "catholico		Maximianus Herculius						285
286	Emperor Diocletian divides the empire - he rules the east and Maximilian rules the west. Diocletian instigates the Tetrarchy, Consisting of one Augustus and one Ceasar in each of the two partitions. The empire will be ruled by the two sets of rulers (one higher placed tha his second in command) for only twelve years before the seconds in command attack their superiors and then each other. This is the path followed by Constantine, starting as Ceasar in York, south through Gaul, across the Milvian Bridge and into Rome in 312 C.E.								286
293	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM		Allectus	Probus					293
296		29 St. Marcellinus							296
297			L. Domitius Domitianus						297
301	Armenia becomes the first country to make Christianity its state religion. the Armenian king Tiridates I converted by Gregory the Illuminator								301
303	Diocletian implements a Great Persecution of the Christians emperor Diocletian orders a general persecution of the Christians								303
304		Vacant,							304
305			Maximinus Daia						305
306	Constantine proclaimed Emperor at York , Western Empire The first bishop of Nisibis is ordained		Maxentius Constantine I	Metrophanes					306
308	Constantine takes Gaul	30 St. Marcellus I	L. Domitius Alexander						308
309		31 St. Eusebius							309
311	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM Donatus and others rebel against the appointment of the bishop of Carthage claiming independence of Church and state and claiming that the people could determine how worthy of administering sacraments a priest is	32 St. Melchiades							311
312	312-337: Constantine the Great reunites Roman Empire with new capital at Byzantion called Constantinople Roman emperor Constantine converts to Christianity								312
313	Edict of Milan: After a victorius entry in Rome, following the battle of Milvian Bridge where Constantine defeated and killed Maxentius, Emperor Constantine issues the Edict of Milan, legalizing Christianity in the Roman Empire. Constantine ends the persecution of the Christians. A cathedral is built in Edessa								313
314	Head of Church at Rome named: POPE Gregory the Illuminator founds Armenian church Donatism is condemned as a heresy	33 St. Sylvester I	Valens	Alexander					314
315	Eusebius, the first church historian and later eulogist of Constantine, appointed bishop of Caesarea								315
316	Donatism splits from Catholicism and spreads throughout Africa								316
318	Pachomius a disciple of Anthony organizes a community of ascetics at Tabennis in Egypt (birth of Christian monasticism)								318
320	Arius is expelled by the patriarch Alexander and during his travels through the eastern Roman empire converts more bishops								320
323	Constantine builds a church to the apostle Peter on the Roman cemetery where the martyr is buried								323
324	Head of Church at Constantinople named: ARCHBISHOP of CONSTANTINOPLE Constantine I achieves full control of Roman Empire. Constantine finally achieves full control over an undivided empire. He was a skillful politician who is popularly believed to have made Christianity the official religion of the empire because of his personal convictions. In actuality that act was merely an expedient intended to harness the power of its "God" for the benefit of the state. He re-located the imperial headquarters to Byzantium whose name he then changed to Constantinople. Despite his outward enthusiasm for Christianity and its powerful God he didn't close many pagan temples during his reign. He did however strip them of their former wealth which was then shifted to various Christian churches. This produced the result that many of the fledgling churches were put on a very firm financial footing and many of their members enjoyed great prosperity. The persecution of Christianity had stopped perhaps but its co-opting had just begun. Early Christianity had no official hierarchies and functioned best as a series of small church groups worshipping with and caring for their own members while spreading Christ's Gospel in their local areas. Constantine's move created a top-heavy structure that would quickly depart from its original purity; a church beholden to the state out of touch with the needs of its adherents and concerned only with its own comfort. Eusebius the early Christian historian has given us some additional insights into the motivations of the Emperor Constantine in his "Ecclesiastical History".				Constantine I				324
325	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM Constantine calls the First Ecumenical Council at Nicea to condemn the Arian heresy, which had taught that the Son was inferior to the Father. The Nicene Creed, the Creed of Christian faith is established and will remain intact until the Schism of 1054. Council of Nicaea discusses the divine/human nature of Jesus and approves the Christian canon (the New Testament) against "heretic" books THE NICENE CREED I believe in one God, the Father, the Almighty, Creator of heaven and earth, and of all things visible and invisible. And in one Lord, Jesus Christ, the only begotten Son of God, begotten of the Father before all ages. Light of Light, true God of true God, begotten, not created, of one essence with the Father, through whom all things were made. For us and for our salvation, He came down from heaven and was incarnate by the Holy Spirit and the Virgin Mary and became man. He was crucified for us under Pontius Pilate, and He suffered and was buried. On the third day He rose according to the Scriptures. He ascended into heaven and is seated at the right hand of the Father. He will come again in glory to judge the living and the dead. His kingdom will have no end. And in the Holy Spirit, the Lord, the Giver of Life, who proceeds from the Father, who together with the Father and the Son is worshiped and glorified, who spoke through the prophets. In one, Holy, Catholic, and Apostolic Church. I acknowledge one baptism for the forgiveness of sins. I expect the resurrection of the dead. And the life of the age to come. Amen.								325
330	Eastern Roman Empire Constantine dedicates the city of Byzantium as the eastern capital of the Empire or "New Rome," renaming it Constantinople after himself. Byzantine Empire; Romiosine 330-1453 Nino converts Georgian royal family Amoun and Macarius found monasteries in the Egyptian desert Hilarion organizes a monastery at Gaza in Palestine Mar Augin founds a monastery in Syria near Nisibis								330
334	the first bishop is ordained for Merv in Transoxania								334
336	Arius, priest at Alexandria and founder of Arianism, dies. Arianism was one of the most widespread and divisive heresies in the history of Christianity.	34 St. Marcus I							336
337	Constantine received "Christian" baptism on his deathbed. Joint rule of Constantine's three sons: Constantine II (to 340); Constans (to 350); Constantius (to 361)	35 St. Julius I		Paul I	Constantine II				337
339	Athanasius of Alexandria visits Rome accompanied by the two Egyptian monks Ammon and Isidore disciples of Anthony who export the idea of monasticism			Eusebius					339
340	Roman legislation begins to favor Christianity and penalize paganism Christianization and literalization of the Goths (Ulfila and the "Gothic bible The first monastery of Persia is founded by Aphrahat near Mosul								340
342					Macedonius I				342
344	catholics are massacred in Persia								344
345	Pachomius dies and his institution already counts eight monasteries and hundreds of monks organized in a hierarchy								345
346	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM			Paul I					346
350	Christianity first reaches Ethiopia. Frumentius converts the royalty of Axum, Ethiopia. the missionary Ninian establishes the church Candida Casa at Whithorn in Galloway Scotland		Magnentius						350
351	Emperor Julian attempts to reintroduce paganism in the place of Christianity.								351
352		36 Liberius							352
355			Silvanus						355
356		[Felix II]							356
358	Basil founds the monastery of Annesos in Pontus the model for eastern monasticism (perfect Christian life and constant penance meditation + poverty + humility)								358
360	Huns invade Europe Martin future bishop of Tours founds the first French monastery at Liguge the Vandals convert to christianity			Eudoxius of Antioch					360
361			Julian						361
362	Marius Victorinus, one of Rome's most famous rhetors, converts, causing much public excitement								362
363	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM Persia recaptures Nisibis from the Romans and the school of Nisibis moves to Edessa		Jovian						363
364			Valentinian I						364
365			Procopius						365
366		37 St. Damasus I	Marcellus						366
367	Festal Epistle of St. Athanasius (c. 293 - 373) offers earliest known list of the New Testament canon in its current form.		Gratian						367
369	Roman general Theodosius drives the Picts and Scots out of Roman Britain								369
370				Demophilus					370
371	The Hunns cross the river Volga into Europe having left Mongolia in the 2nd century leadin a nomadic life in their trek west. They are defeated in the battle of the field of Nations and depart Europe returning East beyond the Ural Mountains. Martin, evangelist to the pagans of central Gaul, is elected bishop of Tours Martin of Tours converts pagans								371
372	Buddhism introduced into Korea.		Firmus						372
374	Ambrose is elected bishop of Milan which has become the main Christian center in Italy								374
375	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM the Jerusalem Talmud (manual of lifestyle) is compiled by western Jews		Valentinian II						375
376	Huns conquer Russia Visigoths convert to Arian christianity								376
378					Theodosius I The Great				378
379	the Roman empire bans Arianism			[Evagrius]					379
380	Emperor Theodosius makes orthodox Christianity the official religion of the empire Ulphilas, Arian missionary bishop among Goths and translator of Gothic Bible, dies Theodosius I proclaims Christianity as the sole religion of the Roman Empire Ambrose preaches virginity			[Maximus]					380
381	Council II, Constantinople I, Arianism condemned; regarded as definitively establishing Roman Catholic orthodoxy Head of Church at Constantinople named: PATRIARCH of CONSTANTINOPLE Second Ecumenical Council convoked by Theodosius I in Constantinople			Nectarius					381
383	Magnus Maximus (Macsen Wledig a Spaniard was proclaimed Emperor in Britain by the island's Roman garrison. With an army of British volunteers he quickly conquered Gaul Spain and Italy.	[Ursinus]	Magnus Maximus						383
384		38 St. Siricius	Flavius Victor						384
386	Jerome founds monasteries in Bethlehem								386
388	Maximus occupied Rome itself. Theodosius the eastern Emperor defeated him in battle and beheaded him in July 388 with many of the remnant of Maximus' troops settling in Armorica. The net result to Britain was the loss of many valuable troops needed for the island's defense (the "first migration").								388
392	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM 392-395:Theodosius the Great, last united Roman emperor		Eugenius						392
393			Honorius						393
395	PARTITION : WESTERN ROMAN EMPIRE				Arcadius				395
397	the eight council (at Carthage) defines the Christian canon (the "New Testament") as comprised of four official gospels (all others are declared heretic) and the letters of the apostles								397
398	Maximus of Turin preaches against pagans			John I					398
399		9 St. Anastasius I							399
400	Jerome (Eusebius Hieronymus) translates the Bible into Latin (the "Vulgate								400
401	Innocent I becomes Pope (until 417) and claims universal jurisdiction over the Roman Church.	40 St. Innocent I							401
404				Arsacius					404
405	c. 405 St. Jerome (c. 347 - 419) completes the Vulgate - a Latin translation of both the Old and New Testaments. This remains the Latin Bible of the Roman Catholic Church.								405
406	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM		Marcus	Atticus					406
407			Gratian						407
408					Theodosius II				408
409			Constans II						409
410	The Goths led by Alarik sack Rome At the council of Seleucia the Persian church declares its independence from Antioch and Rome The ascetic monk Maron sounds the Christian Maronite religion in Syria								410
411	Thanks to Augustine Donatism begins to decline		Jovinus						411
412			Sebastianus						412
414			Priscus Attalus						414
415	Roman emperor Theodosius II expels the Jews from Alexandria								415
417		41 St. Zosimus							417
418	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM British monk Pelagius (c. 354 - 420) is excommunicated. Pelagius denied original sin and the need for baptism, asserting that if God asked men to do good, then they must be capable of doing good on their own. He was condemned by Augustine.	42 St. Boniface I							418
421		[Eulatius]	Constantius III						421
422		43 St. Celestine I							422
423			Johannes						423
424	At the synod of Dadyeshu the "catholico" of the Eastern Church proclaims himself as a patriarch on equal footing with Antioch and Rome								424
425	The first bishops are ordained for Herat and Samarkand		Valentinian III						425
426				Sisinius I					426
428	Nestorius a monk in the Syrian monastery of Euprepius is appointed by the eastern Roman emperor Theodosius II as patriarch of Constantinople and preaches the doctrine of two natures of Jesus			Nestorius					428
431	Council III, Ephesus, The Third Ecumenical Council at Ephesus condemns the Nestorian heresy and approves the veneration of the Virgin Mary as Theotokos (God-Bearer or Mother of God). The Nestorians go into exile in the Persian Empire and become the Assyrian Orthodox Church of the East. Palladius is sent by the Pope as first bishop of Ireland the third Ecumenical Council convened in Ephesus declares that there is only one nature in Jesus (divine condemns Nestorius (who is then banned by Theodosius II) and affirms that Mary was the "mother of God"			Maximianus					431
432	The Roman missionary Patrick is taken prisoner to Ireland	44St. Sixtus III							432
433	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM Attila becomes ruler of the Huns (until 453). He attacks Roman provinces								433
434				Proclus					434
440	The hermit Symeon the Stylite lives on top of a column (monastery of Telanissos in Syria	45 St. Leo I							440
445	The emperor Valentinian III decrees that all western bishops must obey the pope								445
446				Flavian					446
449				Anatolius					449
450	Angles, Saxons and Jutes begin conquest of Britain after Romans leave the first British monasteries are established in Wales Theodosius II dies and Marcian succeeds him the first Roman emperor to be crowned by a religious leader (the patriarch of Constantinople)				Marcian (m. Pulcheria, gnddghtr Theod I)				450
451	Council IV, Chalcedon, The Fourth Ecumenical Council at Chalcedon condemns the Monophysite heresy and affirms that Christ had both a divine and a human nature. The Armenian, Coptic, Ethiopian, and Syrian Orthodox Churches would remain Monophysite; the Greek Orthodox church and the Western church adopted the Chalcedonian or Dyophysite position. Fatal disaffection of Syria & Egypt. This Council also gives Constantinople equal standing with "Old" Rome. Attila invades Gaul but is repulsed by joint forces of Franks, Alemanni and Romans at battle of Chalons. Invades Italy the next year. the fourth Ecumenical Council convened in Chalcedon condemns Dioscurus of Alexandria for monophysitism (Jesus is of one nature only divine) and affirms that Jesus was one person of two natures (both human and divine) which causes the schism of the Coptic Orthodox church from the Churches of Rome and Constantinople								451
455	Vandals destroy Rome		Petronius Maximus						455
457	The eastern Roman emperor is crowned by the patriarch of Constantinople instead of the Pope		Majorian		Dynasty of Leo				457
458	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM 458-751: Merovingian Dynasty rules in France			Gennadius I					458
460	Persian king Firuz persecutes Jews who emigrate to Arabia								460
461		46 St. Hilarus (Hilary)	Libius Severus						461
467			Anthemius						467
468		47 St. Simplicius	Arvandus						468
470			Romanus						470
471				Acacius					471
472			Olybrius						472
473			Glycerius						473
474			Julius Nepos		Leo II				474
475	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM		Romulus Augustulus						475
476	End of the Western Roman Empire Odoacer, German cheiftan, ends Western Roman Empire when he overthrows the last emperor, Romulus Augustulus and becomes King of Italy								476
481	Emperor Zeno shuts down the Nestorian school of Edessa causing Nestorian scholars to flee to Persia (Nisibis)								481
483		48 St. Felix III							483
484	The Synod of Beth Papat in Persia declares the Nestorian docrine (two natures of Jesus) as the official theology of the East Syrian Church centered in Edessa								484
488				Phrabitas					488
489				Euphemius					489
490	Vandals take part of Spain and make Toledo their capital Brigid founds the monastery of Kildare in Ireland								490
491					Anastasius				491
492		49 St. Gelasius I							492
493	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM Theodoric the Great establishes Ostrogothic Kingdom in Italy								493
495				Macedonus II					495
496	Clovis, ruler of the Franks, converts to Christianity Clovis converts Franks to catholicism	50 St. Anastasius II							496
498		51 St. Symmachus [Laurentius]							498
499	The Babylonian Talmud is compiled for eastern Jews a much more orthodox manual of lifestyle than the western Talmud								499
500	The legend of Arthur, King of the Britons and his knights of the Round table is usually assumed to refer to a time between the 6th and 8th centuries. Although no evidence has ever been found of Camelot, the round table or of the existence of Arthur himself, his legend may be a composite of several personages from the eras preceding the establishment of the first kings and the House of Wessex. Pseudo-Dionysius writes mystical works c.500-50 - Spread of Celtic monasticism throughout Europe								500
511				Timothy					511
514		52 St. Hormisdas							514
518				John II	Justin				518
520				Epiphanius					520
523	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM	53 St. John I							523
526		54 St. Felix IV							526
527	Reign of Justinian I begins he will conquer North Africa, southern Spain and Italy Arguably the most important of Byzantine Emperors and the one who marked the final transition from the latin past and paganism to a purely Christian, Greek Empire. Justinian began his life in Bulgaria, a former Roman province, as a poor shepherd boy. His uncle Justin was the commander of the Imperial Guard in Constantinople. Justinian went on the long journey to the Capital. Shortly after he achieved the best education, the emperor died, and the people chose Justin to succeed himas Justinus I. Justin was advised that he should work with Justinian as co-emperor. When Justin died, Justinian became the sole ruler of the Eastern Roman Empire. Justinian began making harsh rules against the pagans and their religion, and forced people to accept Christianity. It can be seen as the first forceful action of Christianity. He destroyed synagogues and Jewish temples all over his empire. Justinian built vast structures of Byzantine, not Roman, art. He is seen as one of the founders of the "Byzantine Empire", as opposed to the East Roman Empire. His reign was filled with military success through his two great generals, Belisarius and Narsus. At the end of his reign, he controlled a part of Spain, Africa, Italy, Turkey and much of the east. Justinian created the Justinian code, which replaced the old Roman laws and set the foundation for subsequent western legal systems. Byzantium enforces anti-Jewish laws and the Jews all but disappear from the eastern Roman Empire				Justinian I				527
529	Emperor Justinian I issues the Code of Laws Justinian closes the pagan Philosophical Academy in Athens. Benedetto of Nursia founds the monastery of Monte Cassino and codifies western monasticism (absolute power of the abbot The council of Orange condemns the Pelagian heresy and accepts Augustine's doctrine of salvation.								529
530	The Benedictine monk Cassiodorus encourages monks to copy manuscripts of the classics	55 Boniface II							530
532	532-537: Aghia Sofia, the new cathedral of Constantinople, is built by order of Justinian, on the site of the earlier Church of Aghia Sofia which was consumed by fire. Legend has it that a beekeeper noticed that bees in one of the beehives had fashioned what appeared to be the model of a magnificent church out of wax. He took the miraculous find to the palace and presented it to Empress Theodora who then prompted her husband to commission the building of the most magnificent Church in Christiandom.								532
533	Mercurius is elected pope and takes the name of John II the first pope to change name upon election	56 John II							533
534	The Roman empire destroys the Arian kingdom of the Vandals								534
535		57 St. Agapetus I		Anthimus I					535
536		58 St. Sylverius		Menas					536
537	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM The church of Aghia Sofia (Holy Wisdom) commissioned in Constantinople by Emperor Justinian and his wife Theodora is completed by architects Isidoros and Anthemios	59 Vigilius							537
541	Jacob Bardaeus bishop of Edessa organizes the Monophysite Church in western Syria (the "Jacobites")								541
544	Ciaran founds the monastery of Clonmacnoise in Ireland								544
546	Columbanus founds the monastery of Derry in Ireland								546
552				Eutychius					552
553	Council V, Constantinople II, Monophysitism condemned again. The Ecumenical Council condemns the heresy of the Three Chapters								553
556	Columbanus founds the monastery of Durrow in Ireland	60 Pelagius I							556
561		61 John III							561
563	Columbanus founds the monastery of Iona off the coast of Scotland soon to become the main center of the Columban school								563
565				John III	Justin II				565
570	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM Muhammad, the Prophet of Islam, born during the reign of Khusro Anosharwan. His father was of the Quraysh tribe (the name means ' shark ' and may have been derived from an ancient tribal emblem.) This tribe gained much power and influence, both because of their commercial activity in their hub at the city of Mecca, and because of their importation and custody of important idols at Mecca.								570
573	Gregory is appointed bishop of Tours								573
575		62 Benedict I							575
578					Tiberius II (I) Constantine				578
579		63 Pelagius II							579
580	Monte Cassino is sacked by the Lombards and the monks flee to Rome								580
582				John IVBR>Nesteutes, the Faster	Maurice				582
587	The Visigothic king Recared converts to catholicism								587
588	The Visigoths abandon Aryanism and convert to catholicism								588
590	For the first time a monk is elected Pope Gregory I	64 St. Gregory I							590
596	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM			Cyriacus					596
597	The Roman brand of Christianity is brought to Britain for the first time by St. Augustine the missionary sent with forty monks by Pope Gregory to convert the Saxons. Augustine founded a monastery and the first church at Canterbury and was proclaimed its first Archbishop.								597
600	Pope Gregory I promulgates the doctrine of salvation through confession and penance								600
601	Augustine converts king Ethelbert of Kent and establishes the see of Canterbury with himself as its first archbishop								601
602					Phocas				602
603	The Lombards convert to Christianity and move their capital to Pavia								603
604	Gregory I dies	65 Sabinianus							604
607		66 Boniface III		Thomas I					607
608		67 St. Boniface IV							608
609	The Irish monk Colombanus founds the monastery at Bobbio								609
610	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM Muhammad and his followers go to Mecca, where they are not accepted			Sergius I	Heraclius				610
612	The Visigothic king Sisebut forces the Jews of Spain to release all slaves and convert to Christianity								612
613	Clotaire II and Dagobert I unify France after years of continual disunity								613
615	Colombanus dies in Italy	68 St. Deusdedit							615
619		69 Boniface V							619
620	The Visigoths in Spain persecute the Jews								620
622	Muhammad and his followers flee Mecca to Medina. The year of that flight, or Hijrah, became the first year of the Islamic calendar, and the beginning the Muslim era.								622
625		70 Honorius I							625
627	Pope Gregory I sends Paulinus to found the see of York and convert king Edwin of Northumbria								627
632	Muhammad in Mecca pronounced the perfection of the new religion. Muhammad dies	Muhammed flees Mecca, beginning the Muslim era.							632
634	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM Muslim (Arab) Empire grows								634
635	Cynegils king of Wessex converts to christianity								635
636	Arabs capture Jerusalem								636
637	Arabs conquer Jerusalem								637
638	Omar defeats the Byzantine army the Arabs allow the Jews to return to Jerusalem	Vacant		Pyrrhus					638
639	The Arabs conquer Syria (mainly Nestorian) from Byzantium								639
640		71 Severinus							640
641	Muslims conquer Persia			Paul II	Heraclonas				641
642	the Arabs conquer Egypt (mainly monophysite) from Byzantium	73 Theodore I							642
647	Amadeus bishop of Maastricht carries out missionary work in Frisia (Holland) and among the Slavs								647
649	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM	74 St. Martin I Arrested and died in exile in Crimea							649
650	Arianism disappears after the Lombards convert to catholicism								650
654		75 St. Eugenius I		Peter					654
657	King Oswy of Northumberland founds the Benedictine monastery of Whitby in Yorkshire	76 St. Vitalianus							657
663	Constans II is the last eastern Roman emperor to set foot in Rome								663
664	Iona monk Wilfrid is appointed bishop of York								664
667				Thomas II					667
668	The monk Theodore of Tarsus is appointed as archbishop of Canterbury				Constantine IV				668
669				John V					669
670	Arabs attack N. Africa Whitby monk Caedmon translates the gothic Bible into Germanic vernacular (ancient english								670
672	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM	77 Adeodatus							672
674	Benedict Biscop founds the monastery of Wearmouth in Northumbria								674
675				Constantine I					675
676		78 Domnus (I)							676
677				Theodore I					677
678	Wilfrid evangelizes in Frisia (Holland	79 St. Agathon							678
679				George I					679
680	680-681 Council VI,Constantinople III, Monotheletism condemned								680
681	Benedict founds the monastery of Jarrow in Northumbria								681
682		80 St. Leo II							682
684	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM	81 St. Benedict II							684
685	John V is the first of a series of Greek and Syriac Popes under the influence of Constantinople	82 John V			Justinian II (banished)				685
686		83 Conon							686
687	The Danes destroy the monastery of Whitbey	84 St. Sergius I Ordered arrested but Italian garrison refuses [Paschal] [Theodorus]							687
690	English missionary Willibrord evangelizes in Holland and Denmark								690
693				Callinicus I					693
694	The Visigothic king Egica orders all Jews enslaved								694
695					Leontius				695
698	Arabs capture Carthage				Tiberius III(II)				698
700	Babylonian Jews extend their influence as the Arab conquest spreads west								700
701	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM	85 John VI							701
705		86 John VII		Cyrus	Justinian II (restored)				705
708		87 Sisinnius 88 Constantine I Last Pope to visit Constantinople							708
711	Tariq ibn-Ziyad and a Berber army cross the Strait of Gibraltar into Iberia (Spain) The Arabs conquer southern Spain from the Visigoths (with help from the Jews)				Bardanes				711
712				John VI					712
713					Anastasius II				713
715		89 St. Gregory II		Germanus I					715
716	Arab empire extends from Lisbon, Spain to China Iona conforms to Roman usage				Theodosius III				716
717					Leo III				717
719	Arabs complete their conquest in Spain								719
722	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM the Anglosaxon Benedectine monk Boniface (Wynfrid) evangelizes in Saxony								722
726	During the iconoclasm Constantinople orders all images to be destroyed								726
730	Byzantine Emperor Leo III bans the veneration of images and relics, inaugurating the first period of Iconoclasm.			Anastasius					730
731	Bede writes the "Ecclesiastical History of the English People	90 St. Gregory III Appeals to Franks for help against Lombards							731
732	Charles Martel halts Arabian advance in France The Muslim invasion of Europe is stopped by the Franks at the battle of Tours								732
739	Boniface reforms the Frankish church								739
741		91 St. Zachary			Constantine V Copronymus				741
744	Boniface founds the monastery of Fulda in Germany								744
751	Pepin the Short, Martel's son, becomes King of the Franks Pepin sends help to the Pope in Italy The Lombards under king Aistulf conquer Ravenna from the Byzantines and indirectly release Rome from the influence of Constantinople								751
752	Stephen II is Pope for only one day	92 Stephen II 93 Stephen III							752
754	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM Donation of Pepin, Byzantine Exarchate of Ravennabecomes Papal States Although the Pope had been the de facto governor of Rome for a few years, the Donation of Pepin in 754 begins the formal history of the Papacy as a territorial power. This would last until 1870, giving the Papal States a run of 1116 years. The origin terms of the grant were for the "Exarchate of Ravenna," i.e. the Roman Imperial territory that was preserved across central Italy after the invasion of Lombards in 568. The most important parts of this were, of course, Rome itself and the area of Romagna around Ravenna in the north, with a narrow salient connecting them. Boniface is killed by Frisians pope Stephen II anoints Pepin III king of the Franks			Constantine II					754
756	The Caliphrate of Cordoba is founded by Abd-ar-Rahma in Spain Pepin again fights for the Pope in Italy, Papal States formed Pepin III defeats the Lombards and conquers Ravenna but leaves the conquered territories to the Pope thereby founding the Papal State and establishing a temporal power for the Pope								756
757		94 St. Paul I							757
766				Nicetas I					766
767		[Constantine II] [Philip]							767
768	The Frankish kindom is divided among Pepin's sons: Carloman and Charlemagne (Charles	95 Stephen IV							768
769	At the Lateran council the cardinals decide that only cardinals can become popes								769
771	771-814: Charlemagne rules in France, conquers Lombards, part of Spain, Bavarians, Avars, and the Saxons								771
772		96 Adrian I							772
775	The Eastern patriarchate moves from Seleucia-Ctesiphon to Baghdad				Leo IV				775
780	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM			Paul IV,	Constantine VI				780
782	Charlemagne summons the monk and scholar Alcuin of York to head the palace school at Aachen: revival of learning in Europe								782
784				Tarasius					784
787	The Seventh Ecumenical Council, Nicea II, condemns iconoclasm and restores the veneration of images underguidance of Empress Irene.								787
790	Vikings begin to attack the British Isles								790
793	Vikings invade Britain for the first time in a surprise attack on the monastic community at Lindisfarne (Holy Island)								793
795		97 St. Leo III							795
797					Irene				797
800	St. Leo III crowns Charlemagne Roman Emperor; gives Papacy basis for claiming sovereign rights over later Holy Roman Emperors Pope Leo III crowns Charles emperor of the Holy Roman Empire and therefore introduces theocratic monarchy in Europe								800
802					Nicephorus I	House of Wessex Egbert			802
806	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM			Nicephorus I					806
811					Strauracius				811
813	Charlemagne's son, Louis the Pious, is crowned by his father				Leo V				813
814	Charlemagne dies, succeeded by his son Louis the Pious						Later Carolingian Transition Louis I (not a king of 'France')		814
815	A council called by Emperor Leo V again bans images, inaugurating the second period of Iconoclasm.			Theodotus I,					815
816		98 Stephen V							816
817	Louis the Pious decides to divide his empire between his sons Lothair (emperor) and his other two sons as kings of two other subordinate kingdoms Benedict of Ariane draws up the monastic constitution of Benedectine monasteries (monks as a political entity that mediates between laity and deity	99 St. Paschal I							817
820					Phrygian Dynasty				820
821				Anthony I					821
822	Mojmir prince of Morava converts to christianity								822
824	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM	100 Eugenius II							824
826	826-27: Arabs conquer Crete, Sicily and Sardinia the Frankish missionary Angkar bishop of Hamburg evangelizes in Denmark and Sweden Harald Klak of Denmark converts to Christianity								826
827		101 Valentinus 102 Gregory IV							827
828	Egbert of Wessex is recognized as overlord of other English kings								828
829					Theophilus				829
830	The Kirghiz drive the Uighurs west to the Tarim Basin								830
836				John VII					836
839						Aethelwulf			839
840							Charles II (the Bald)		840
842					Michael III				842
843	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM Empress Theodora restores the veneration of images on the First Sunday of Lent, which became known as the Sunday of Orthodoxy. End of the Iconoclastic struggle Triumph of Orthodoxy the "Restoration of the images" in Constantinople solves the iconoclastic controversy			Methodius I					843
844	Kenneth MacAlpine King of the Scots conquers the Picts; founds a unified Scotland	103 Sergius II							844
845	the Irish theologian Johannes Scotus Erigena (John the Scot) takes over the Palatine Academy in France								845
847		104 St. Leo IV		Ignatius					847
849	caliph al-Mutawakkil deposes the patriarch of the Eastern Christian Church and persecutes Christians								849
852	Ansgar founds the churches at Hedeby and Ribe in Denmark								852
855	855-79: Russian nation founded by the Vikings under Prince Rurik	105 Benedict III [Anastasius]				Aethelbald			855
858	Emperor Michael III deposes Patriarch Ignatius and installs Photius, a learned layman. Nicholas I becomes pope and asserts the independence of the Church from local authorities and from Constantinople	106 St. Nicholas I		Photius					858
859	Vikings repulsed in the Mediterranean								859
860						Aethelbert			860
861	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM Vikings discover Iceland the Khazars convert to Judaism								861
862	Byzantine Emperor Michael III ("the Drunkard") sends Constantine (later Cyril, died 869) and his brother Methodius (died 885) to Moravia to teach Christianity to the Slavs. They translated the Bible and other religious writings into Old Church Slavonic. These "Apostles to the Slavs" also had the support of the Popes of Rome, Hadrian II and John VIII. Boris of Bulgary converts to christianity Ratislav of Moravia converts to christianity								862
863	Cyril and Methodius from Constantinople write the Slavic bible in the first Slavic alphabet glagolitic								863
866						Aethelred			866
867	Rivalry between Greek and Latin missionaries to Bulgaria prompts Photius to convene a council that deposes Pope Nicholas III, and attacks Western notions of papal primacy and many Western practices, including the insertion of the word "filioque" into the Nicene Creed. The Eastern church now dates the East-West split from this event (the Photian Schism). Also see 1054 CE	107 Adrian II			Basil I				867
869	869-870 Council VIII,Constantinople IV, patched up filioque and other differences, later repudiated by East, last Oecumenical Council recognized by West which included Eastern Church Emperor Basil I "the Macedonian," who had murdered Michael III, seeks papal support by deposing Photius and restoring Ignatius. The Eighth Council held in support of Ignatius is considered by the West only to be the Eighth Ecumenical Council (Constantinople IV).								869
870	The Serbs convert to christianity								870
871	Alfred the Great becomes King of a united England					Alfred the Great			871
872		108 John VIII							872
877	877-80: Ignatius dies, Photius restored as Patriarch, legates of Pope John VIII accept him on condition that Bulgaria be returned to the Latin church, without really settling the theological issues.						Louis II (the Stammerer)		877
878	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM Alfred defeats Danish invaders								878
879							Louis III Carloman (joint with Louis III above, until 882)		879
882		109 Martin II							882
884		110 St. Adrian III					Charles the Fat		884
885	Mt Athos is granted independence as a religious retreat by emperor Basil I	111 Stephen VI							885
886	Alfred captures London from the Danes			Stephanus I					886
887					Leo VI				887
888	French crown offered to Count Odo						Eudes (also Odo) of Paris (non-Carolingian)		888
891		112 Fromosus							891
893				Anthony II					893
896	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM	113 Boniface VI							896
897		115 Romanus 116 Theodore II							897
898		117 John IX					Charles III (the Simple)		898
899						Edward the Elder			899
900		118 Benedict IV							900
901				Nicholas I					901
903		19 Leo V 120 Christopher							903
904	Sergius III is elected pope thanks to a powerful Roman noblewoman the first of a series of popes appointed by the Roman aristocracy	212 Sergius III							904
907				Euthymius I					907
909	Berno founds the monastery of Cluny in Burgundy								909
911	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM Vikings under Rollo found settlement in Normandy, a vassal state of France	122 Anastasius III							911
912	912-61: Arabian Spain becomes the centre of learning the Normans become Christian				Alexander				912
913		123 Lando			Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus				913
914		134 John X							914
922	The Viking ruler Dirk I founds the Egmont Benedictine monastery in Haarlem (Holland						Robert I (non-Carolingian)		922
923							Raoul (also Rudolf, non-Carolingian)		923
925				Stephanus II		Athelstan			925
927				Tryphon					927
928		125 Leo VI 126 Stephen VIII							928
931		127 John XI							931
932	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM Castile becomes independent of Leon								932
933				Theophylactus					933
936		128 Leo VII					Louis IV (d'Outremer or The Foreigner)		936
939		129 Stephen IX							939
940						Edmund the Magnificent			940
942		130 Martin III							942
946		131 Agapetus II				Eadred			946
948	The leader of the Magyars converts to christianity								948
950	The church of Hosios Loukas (Holy Luke) is founded in Stiris Greece								950
954							Lothar (also Lothaire)		954
955	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM	132 John XII				Eadwig (Edwy) All-Fair			955
956				Polyeuctus					956
959					Romanus II	Edgar the Peaceable			959
960	Mieczyslaw I becomes first ruler of Poland								960
962	East Frankish Otto crowned Emperor after he defeats Magyars, founds new Holy Roman Empire in Germany								962
963		{Leo VIII}			Nicephorus II Phocas				963
964		133 Benedict V							964
965	Harald Bluetooth (Harold I) converts the Danes to christianity	134 John XIII							965
969	Athanasios of Trebizond founds the Great Lavra (Great Monastery) on Mount Athos in Greece								969
970				Basil I					970
973	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM	135 Benedict VI		Anthony III					973
974		[Boniface VII] {Domnus II}							974
975						Edward the Martyr			975
976					Basil II				976
978						Aethelred the Unready			978
980	The Danes renew their raids on England attacking Chester and Southampton			Nicholas II					980
983		137 John XIV							983
985		138 John XV							985
986							Louis V (the Do-Nothing)		986
987	Hugh Capet takes the French throne and the Capetian dynasty of France is founded						Capetian Dynasty Hugh Capet		987
988	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM Prince Vladimir is baptized and marries a Byzantine princess. Russia becomes a Christian nation. Vladimir of Kiev converts to Christianity								988
989	989-99: Viking Danes attack Britain again								989
995	Olav I conquers Norway and proclaims it a Christian kingdom								995
996	Robert II succeeds Hugh Capet a German is elected pope Gregory V	139 GregoryV [John XVI]					Robert II (the Pious)		996
999	German emperor Otto III appoints Gerbert d'Aurillac pope who becomes the first French pope and assumes the name Sylvester II	140 Sylvester II		Sergius II					999
1000	Europe sees the new millenium in with the construction of magnificent cathedrals between the 10th and 12th centuries Greenland and Iceland are christianized								1000
1001	cathedral of Ani in Armenia								1001
1003	the Egyptian ruler Hakim persecutes Christianity	141 John XVII							1003
1004		142 John XVIII							1004
1008	AD: Sweden is christianized								1008
1009	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM Arabs destroy the church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem	143 Sergius IV							1009
1012	Romualdo founds the Camaldolese order in Italy (Anthony's monasticism and hermits appears in Italy	144 Benedict VIII							1012
1014						Danish Line Svein Forkbeard			1014
1016						Edmund Ironside			1016
1017	The Danish king Canute converts to christianity								1017
1018	Bishop Hildebrand founds the monastery of San Miniato is founded near Florence in Italy								1018
1019				Eustathius					1019
1022	1022: the Catharist/Albigenian heresy a neo-manichaean sect believing that matter is evil spreads in Languedoc (southern France)								1022
1024		145 John XIX							1024
1025				Alexius I	Constantine VIII (IX) alone				1025
1028	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM				Romanus III Argyrus				1028
1031							Henry I		1031
1032	A teenager is elected pope Benedict IX the youngest pope ever and the last of the "dynastic" popes	146 Benedict IX							1032
1033	Ferdinand I of Castile becomes King of Castile, Leon and Navarre								1033
1034					Michael IV the Paphlagonian				1034
1035						Harald Harefoot			1035
1036	Muslim Umayyad dynasty in Spain ends with the death of Hisham III and the caliphrate splits into 8 other kingdoms San Miniato monk Giovanni Gualberto founds the monastery of Vallombrosa near Florence in Italy								1036
1039	Cluny's abbot Odilo turns his monastery into the head of a monastic feudal system whose influence spread all over Europe								1039
1040						Hardicanute			1040
1041					Michael V Calaphates				1041
1042	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM				Zoe and Theodora	Edward the Confessor			1042
1043				Michael I					1043
1044		[Sylvester III]							1044
1045	After Benedict IX gets married and sells the papacy to his godfather Gregory VI the emperor Heinrich III calls for the synod of Sutri to reform the corrupt papacy	147 Gregory VI 146 Benedict IX							1045
1046		148 Clement II							1046
1047		146 Benedict IX							1047
1048		149 Damasus II							1048
1049	Heinrich III appoints Pope Leo IX a German reformer	150 St. Leo IX							1049
1050	The ascetics Anthony and Theodosius found the Monastery of the Caves (Pecherska Lavra) in Kiev								1050
1054	Schism between Eastern and Western Churches also see 867 CE Western Cluniac monks take over Greek monasteries in southern Italy, Byzantine patriarch Michael Caerularius responds by closing Latin churches in Constantinople. Pope Leo IX sends Cardinal Humbert (considered an expert on Eastern Christianity) to Constantinople to work things out. Not knowing Leo IX had died, Humbert excommunicates Patriarch Michael in Leo's name, asserting that the Eastern church had removed "filioque" from the Creed. The Western church traditionally dates the East-West split from this event (the Great Schism). The Church of the Pope refers to itself as the "Holy Roman Catholic and Apostolic Church". This is contrasted, with Protestant churches and with the Orthodox Churches of the East: Greek, Coptic, Syriac, Armenian, Russian, Romanian, Serbian, etc., as an usurpation. The "Holy Roman Catholic and Apostolic Church" was the Universal (katholiki) Church of the Roman Empire. The Pope, then Bishop of Rome, was not the ruler of that Church, but one of the Ecumenical Patriarchs, along with the Patriarchs of Constantinople, Jerusalem, Antioch, and Alexandria. The Pope was allowed to be primus inter pares as a courtesy towards the ancient seat of St. Peter. Governance of the Church was also shared among the five heads of the Church and with the Emperor, who was regarded as the "Equal of the Apostles," and who had the authority to call Church Councils. After the fall of the western Empire in 476, that meant only the Emperor in Constantinople. As it happened, only that Emperor had ever called Councils. After various disputes, the Latin and Greek Churches finally broke in 1054. Each thus claimed to be the proper "Holy Roman Catholic and Apostolic Church," but over time and aided by the enslavement of the Eastern Orhodox peoples by the Turks, the Papal use of the terminology has gained more widespread recognition of the term. The actual reason that was used to instigate and justify the legality of the Schism was the addition, by the Pope, of one word to the Creed of Faith which had united Christianity since Constantine had called the Council at Nicea to establish it: The paragraph which refers to the Holy Spirit decrees that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father and is glorified together with the Father and the Son. The pope added the word filioque which now reads that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father AND the Son. The addition of this one word had extremely serious rumifications as to the nature of the Son and reverted to considerations of heresies past, as Arianism, Monothelitism and others. The Pope declared the other four heads of the church in error and assumed the position that his church, in the altered Creed carried the correct interpretation of Christianity. The Schism between Greek and Latin Churches came at a very bad time for the Greeks. Defeat by the Turks and the loss of Asia Minor deprived Romania (Romiosini: a reference in Greek to the Christian roman Empire) of more than half its territory. This was a catastrophe, and actually the Empire never recovered. The Emperor Alexius Comnenos appealed to the West for help. Pope Urban II called for a "Crusade," a great Christian army, not just to help the Christians in the east, but to go on and reconquer Jerusalem. The First Crusade defeated the Turks badly enough that Romania was able to recover considerable territory, but then it went on and obtained the great goal of Jerusalem, which had been in Islamic hands for 463 years. the Crusades continued and the Crusaders of the Fourth Crusade instead of proceeding to Jerusalem stopped at Constantinople, laid siege, took the City and enslaved the Christians of the east for almost 60 years. 911 years after the Schism, in 1965, Pope Paul VI and Patriarch Athenagoras I of Constantinople mutually nullify the excommunications of 1054. Some 3o years later, Pope John Paul II visited Athens and recited the Nicene Creed in its original form standing in holy liturgy together with the Archbishop of the Church of Greece THE NICENE CREED I believe in one God, the Father, the Almighty, Creator of heaven and earth, and of all things visible and invisible. And in one Lord, Jesus Christ, the only begotten Son of God, begotten of the Father before all ages. Light of Light, true God of true God, begotten, not created, of one essence with the Father, through whom all things were made. For us and for our salvation, He came down from heaven and was incarnate by the Holy Spirit and the Virgin Mary and became man. He was crucified for us under Pontius Pilate, and He suffered and was buried. On the third day He rose according to the Scriptures. He ascended into heaven and is seated at the right hand of the Father. He will come again in glory to judge the living and the dead. His kingdom will have no end. And in the Holy Spirit, the Lord, the Giver of Life, who proceeds from the Father, who together with the Father and the Son is worshiped and glorified, who spoke through the prophets. In one, Holy, Catholic, and Apostolic Church. I acknowledge one baptism for the forgiveness of sins. I expect the resurrection of the dead. And the life of the age to come. Amen. the patriarch of Constantinople and the pope in Rome excommunicate each other (the Great Schism								1054
1055	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM Seljuk Turks take Baghdad	151 Victor II			Theodora alone				1055
1056	Ferdinand I of Castile makes himself Emperor and initiates a period of reconquest of the Moors				Michael VI Stratioticus				1056
1057		152 Stephen X			Isaac I Comnenos				1057
1058		153 Benedict X							1058
1059	Humbert della Silva Candida publishes the rules by which popes should be elected restricting the electors to the cardinals and forbidding interference from the Roman nobility or the Holy Roman emperor and resumes the Donatist heresy (the morality of a priest determines whether he is worthy of administering sacraments)	154 Nicholas II		Constantine III	Constantine X (1X) Ducas				1059
1060	Decree for election of Popes by a college of Cardinals; beginning of Papal heyday Svend Estridsen (Svend II) organizes the Danish church						Philip I		1060
1061		155 Alexander II							1061
1064				John VIII					1064
1066	The Norman Conquests On 28 September 1066, with a favourable wind, William I The Conqueror landed unopposed at Pevensey and, within a few days, raised fortifications at Hastings. Having defeated an earlier invasion by the King of Norway at the Battle of Stamford Bridge near York in late September, Harold undertook a forced march south, covering 250 miles in some nine days to meet the new threat, gathering inexperienced reinforcements to replenish his exhausted veterans as he marched. At the Battle of Senlac (near Hastings) on 14 October, Harold's weary and under-strength army faced William's cavalry (part of the forces brought across the Channel) supported by archers. Despite their exhaustion, Harold's troops were equal in number (they included the best infantry in Europe equipped with their terrible two-handled battle axes) and they had the battlefield advantage of being based on a ridge above the Norman positions. The first uphill assaults by the Normans failed and a rumour spread that William had been killed; William rode among the ranks raising his helmet to show he was still alive. The battle was close-fought: a chronicler described the Norman counter-attacks and the Saxon defence as 'one side attacking with all mobility, the other withstanding as though rooted to the soil'. Three of William's horses were killed under him. William skilfully co-ordinated his archers and cavalry, both of which the English forces lacked. During a Norman assault, Harold was killed - hit by an arrow and then mowed down by the sword of a mounted knight. Two of his brothers were also killed. The demoralised English forces fled. (In 1070, as penance, William had an abbey built on the site of the battle, with the high altar occupying the spot where Harold fell. The ruins of Battle Abbey, and the town of Battle, which grew up around it, remain.) William was crowned on Christmas Day 1066 in Westminster Abbey.					Norman Line William I the Conqueror			1066
1067	Work is begun on building the Tower of London								1067
1068	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM The Norman Conquest continues until 1069: William subdues the north of England (the "Harrying of the North" ): the region is laid waste				Romanus IV Diogenes				1068
1070	The Hospital of Saint John is founded in Jerusalem by Amalfi merchants								1070
1071	Turkish Muslims defeat the Christian army of the Byzantine Empire at the Battle of Manzikert, Turkey. The Muslims go on to conquer Palestine (now Israel). Turkish Muslims begin to attack Christians on pilgrimages to holy places the Turks capture Jerusalem				Michael VII Ducas				1071
1072	William invades Scotland and also receives the submission of Hereward the Wake.								1072
1073	Hildebrand becomes pope Gregory VII and launches the "Gregorian" reform (celibacy of the clergy primacy of the papacy over the empire infallibility of the Church	156 St. Gregory VII							1073
1075	The Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela is built the third most popoular pilgrimage site after Jerusalem and Rome			Cosmas I					1075
1076	1076-1122 Investiture Controversy Heinrich IV refuses and Gregory VII excommunicates and deposes him but then forgives him at Canossa (abbot Hugh of Cluny acts as mediator)								1076
1078					Nicephorus III Botaniates				1078
1080	William in a letter reminds the bishop of Rome that the King of England owes him no allegiance	[Clement (III)]			Nicephorus Melissenus				1080
1081				EustathiusGaridas	Alexius I Comnenus				1081
1084	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM Bruno founds the Carthusian order at the Grande Chartreuse near Grenoble			Nicholas III					1084
1085	Heinrich IV invades Italy and drives Pope Gregory VII out of Rome and the Pope dies in exile prisoner of the Normans who have repelled the Germans but also sacked Rome	Vacant,							1085
1086	Alfonso I of Castile conquers Toledo	157 Victor III							1086
1087						William II Rufus			1087
1088	A monk of Cluny is elected Pope Urban II	158 Urban II							1088
1093	Henry of Burgundy (Bourgogne) comes to the aid of Castile (Spain) when it is invaded by Moors and becomes Count of Portugal Anselm becomes Archbishop of Canterbury								1093
1095	1095-1291: Holy Wars - The 7 Crusades Pope Urban II responding to an appeal from the Byzantine emperor Alexios Komnenos calls for a Crusade against the Muslims								1095
1096	1096-1099 First Crusade,defeats Seljuks,recaptures Jerusalem Jews are persecuted by the Crusaders								1096
1098	The Crusaders capture Antioch								1098
1099	(June): After a perilous overland journey that takes nearly three years, the Crusaders reach the outskirts of Jerusalem Fall of Jerusalem Crusaders under Godfrey of Bouillon capture Jerusalem Vallombrosa monk Raniero becomes Pope Paschal II	159 Paschal II							1099
1100	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM 1100-1300: Construction of the Chartres Cathedral in France England's king Henry I fights with Pope Pasquale II on the issue of lay investiture (the king elects the bishops					Henry I Beauclerc			1100
1102		[Albert]							1102
1103	The Danish king Erik Ejegod (Erik I) obtains that Lund become the archiepiscopal see for the whole of Scandinavia								1103
1105		[Sylvester]							1105
1107	The Concordat of London finds a compromise between England's king Henry I and Pope Pasquale II on the issue of lay investiture (the king elects the bishops								1107
1108	1108-37: Louis VI, King of France, consolidates royal power						Louis VI (the Fat)		1108
1111	Paschal II resolves the conflict between Church and Empire by renouncing all of the Church's earthly possessions and by embracing apostolic poverty			John IX					1111
1113	The Pope recognizes the Hospital of Saint John as separate monastic order (the Hospitallers) with headquarters in Acre								1113
1115	Bernard of Clairvaux founds a Cistercian monastery at Clairvaux and begins a campaign against Cluny								1115
1118	Paschal II dies	160 Gelasius II			John II Comenus				1118
1119	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM The Crusaders set up new Christian states in the Holy land. The new orders of knights, Templars and the Hospitalers, are founded. These knights are also monks. They defend the Crusaders' states against Muslim attacks and protect Christian pilgrims to the Holy Land	161 Calixtus II							1119
1122	Pope Calixtus II and German emperor Heinrich V sign the Concordat of Worms that resolves the "investiture controversy" by granting the emperor veto power over the German Church								1122
1123	Lateran Council I								1123
1124		162 Honorius II							1124
1130		163 Innocent II							1130
1134				Stypiotes					1134
1135						Stephen			1135
1137	Benedictine monk Suger builds the cathedral of Saint-Denis in a new style the gothic style						Louis VII (the Young)		1137
1138		[Victor IV]							1138
1139	Alfonso of Portugal declares Portugal independent from Leon and Castile								1139
1141	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM The philospher Pierre Abelard is condemned as heretic and is books are burned for his views on the Trinity and his love for Heloise					Empress Matilda			1141
1142	Some Crusaders settle in the Holy Land. They begin constructing Krak des Chevaliers (Castle of the Knights) in Syria. The underground storerooms of this magnificent castle contain enough supplies of food and arms to withstand a five-year siege								1142
1143	Treat of Zamora, Leon recognizes Portugal's independence	164 Celestine II		Michael II Curcuas	Manuel I				1143
1144	Later Crusades were the result of setbacks, like the fall of Edessa in 1144 and, much worse, the loss of Jerusalem in 1187. The Popes began to labor constantly to put together forces that could recover the Christian position in Outremer. The Third Crusade was the most powerful and direct, but it fell short. Much, much worse was the Fourth Crusade, which was redirected by the Doge of Venice, Enrico Dandolo, to the purposes of Venice. Pope Innocent III first had to excommunicate everyone for the use of the army in Dalmatia, and then the Venicians took it, not to Palestine, but to Constantinople. This could be seen as undoing the Schism between the Chruches, since now there was a Latin Emperor and Latin Patriarch in Romania, but it didn't accomplish the real purpose. Nor did it last long. Bernard of Clairvaux calls for a second Crusade to rescue the besieged Latin kingdom of Jerusalem and Louis VII of France and Konrad III of Germany join the crusaders but they are defeated by the Muslims	165 Lucius II							1144
1145	Almohads take over Muslim Spain	166 Eugenius III							1145
1146	1146-48: Second Crusade, Louis VII on the crusade			Cosmas II Atticus					1146
1147	1147-1149 Second Crusade Jews are persecuted by the Crusaders			Nicholas IV Muzalon					1147
1151				Theodotus II					1151
1152	Pope annuls marriage between Louis VII and Eleanor of Aquitaine								1152
1153		167 Anastasius IV		[Neophytus I]					1153
1154	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM Henry II of Anjou marries Eleanor of Aquitaine and England begins to form the Angevin Empire in France	168 Adrian IV		Constantine IV Chiliarenus		Henry II Curtmantle			1154
1156				Lucas Chrysoberges					1156
1159	French theologian John of Salisbury publishes the "Policraticus first doctrine of the separation of church and state but with the state subordinate to the church	169 Alexander III							1159
1160	Alexander III excommunicates Friedrich I "Barbarossa								1160
1162	Friedrich I "Barbarossa" raids Rome and Milan								1162
1164	Sweden obtains an archbishop	[Paschal III]							1164
1165	Thomas Becket named Archbishop of Centerbury Cathedral, head of the church of England								1165
1168	A Spaniard is elected pope Calixtus III	[Calixtus (III)]							1168
1170	Henry II's men murder Thomas Becket			Michael III of Anchialus					1170
1177	Barbarossa recognizes Alexander III as Pope and is forgiven			Chariton Eugeniotes					1177
1179	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM Lateran Council III Pope recognizes Portugal's independence			Theodosius I Boradiotes					1179
1180	1180-1223: Philip II Augustus reigns in France the Jewish philosopher Maimonides attempts to bridge the Talmud and Aristotle in the "Guide for the Perplexed				Alexius II		Philip II Augustus		1180
1181	The Muslim warrior Saladin becomes Sultan of Egypt. He is a brilliant military commander who unites the Muslim army	170 Lucius III							1181
1183				Basil II Camaterus	Andronicus I				1183
1184	Pope Lucius III excommunicates Peter Waldo founder of the anti-Cluniac ascetic Waldensians ("poor men of Lyons")								1184
1185	1185-1211: Sancho I reigns in Portugal	171 Urban III			Isaac II				1185
1186	The Vlachs rebel against the Byzantine Empire. Foundation of the Bulgaro-Vlach Empire			Nicetas II Muntanes					1186
1187	Saladin crushes the crusaders armies at Hittin Jerusalem falls to the Muslims Saladdin retakes Jerusalem	172 Gregory VIII							1187
1189	1189-1192 Third Crusade the third Crusade is led by King Richard the Lion-Hearted of England king Philip Augustus II of France and emperor Frederick Barbarossa			Dositheus of Jerusalem		Richard I The Lionheart			1189
1190	The Teutonic Knights are founded by German lords to fight in the crusade establish their capital at Acre and adopt the Templars' white mantle and the Hospitallers' rule								1190
1191	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM Richard I conquers Cyprus and captures the city of Acre	174 Celestine III		Dositheus of Jerusalem					1191
1192	Richard I captures Jaffa makes peace with Saladin; on the way home he is captured by his enemy Duke Leopold of Austria								1192
1194	Richard is ransomed and returned to England								1194
1195	The Tale of Robin Hood is said to have taken place during these times when Richard was imprisoned after having left on the Third Crusade and John ruled in his stead.				Alexius III				1195
1198	Cardinal Lothario Conti is elected pope Innocent III	175 Innocent III		John X Camaterus					1198
1199	1199-1204: Fourth Crusade Philip II of France begins military conquest of British Normandy and Anjou					John Lackland			1199
1200	The Jews are expelled from England								1200
1202	1202-1204 Fourth Crusade; Constantinople taken by Crusaders in employ of Venice, first break in line of Roman (Rhomaic/Byzantine) Emperors								1202
1203					Isaac II (restored) with Alexius IV				1203
1204	Fourth Crusade Fall of Constantinople to the Latins. The armies of the Fourth Crusade never reach the Holy Land. Instead, they raid Constantinople, capital of the Christian Byzantine Empire. The Crusaders pillage the city and put its inhabitants to the sword the Crusaders led by Venezia sack Constantinople				Alexius V Ducas Murtzuphlus				1204
1206	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM Francis of Assisi gives up his wealth and adopts a life of absolute poverty								1206
1207				Michael IV Autorianus					1207
1208	1208-1261 Patriarchate at Nicaea pope Innocent III launches a crusade against the Catharist/Albigensian and the Waldensian heretics								1208
1209	London Bridge built: Peace between England and Scotland 1209-1229 Albigensian Crusade Cambridge University is founded in England; Innocent III excommunicates John for attacks on Church property								1209
1210	The Pope recognizes the Franciscan order of mendicant friars								1210
1212	Christians defeat Almohad Muslims at Las Navas de Tolosa, Almohads expelled from Spain shortly after and Christian reconquest continues the Jews of Toledo are massacred by the Crusaders								1212
1213				Theodore II Irenicus					1213
1214	Philip II of France defeats the combined armies of the Holy Roman Empire and England at the Battle of Bouvines								1214
1215	King John forced to sign the Magna Carta Lateran Council IV the Dominican order of mendicant friars is founded in Languedoc the fourth Lateran council defines the seven sacraments (in particular marriage and confession) and prescribes that Jews be confined in ghettos			Maximus II					1215
1216	Innocent III dies	176 Honorius III				Henry III			1216
1217	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM 1217-1221: The Fifth Crusade Emperor Friederich II grants lands to the Teutonic Knights in Sicily								1217
1219	Francis of Assisi preaches to the sultan of Egypt								1219
1222				Germanus II	John III Ducas Vatatzes				1222
1223	Genghis Khan invades Russia						Louis VIII (the Lion)		1223
1226	Emperor Friederich II grants the Teutonic Knights authority to restore order name in Prussia						Louis IX (St. Louis)		1226
1227	Count Ugolino is elected pope Gregory IX	177 Gregory IX							1227
1228	1228-29: The Sixth Crusade, led by the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II, reoccupies Jerusalem as part of a temporary peace treaty with the Muslims.								1228
1233	Spanish Inquisition begins Gregory IX institutes the Inquisition whose courts are mainly run by the Dominican monks pope Gregory IX issues a mandate for Inquisition against the heretics								1233
1238	Valencia is reconquered								1238
1240	Mongols take Kiev			Methodius II					1240
1241	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM The great Tartar invasion in Central Europe Mongols defeat Germans at Silesia, and invade Poland and Hungary	178 Celestine IV							1241
1243		179 Innocent IV							1243
1244				Manuel II					1244
1248	1248-1254 Sixth Crusade, St. Louis IX of France, got no further than Tunisia The crusade ends in disaster with the capture and imprisonment of Louis 1248-1279 Alfonso III reigns in Portugal and moves capital to Lisbon Sevilla is reconquered by Ferdinand III								1248
1250	Eusebius of Esztergom founds the Order of St Paul the First Hermit ("Pauline monks") by uniting all the hermits who lived in the forests of Hungary and Croatia								1250
1252	Pope Innocent IV issues a papal bull that approves torture against heretics								1252
1254	Marco Polo (1254-1324) is born	180 Alexander IV		Arsenius Autorianus	Theodore II Lascaris				1254
1258					John IV Lascaris				1258
1259				Nicephorus II	Michael VIII Paleologus				1259
1261	Recovery of Constantinople from its Latin conquerors by the Byzantine Emperor Michael Paleologos Patriarchate at Constantinople	181 Urban IV							1261
1264	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM The Dominican monk Thomas Aquinas publishes the "Summa Contra Gentiles that reconciles science and religion								1264
1265		182 Clement IV		Germanus III					1265
1266				Joseph I Galesiotes					1266
1269	Rebuilding of Westminster Abbey begun by Henry III	Vacant,							1269
1270							Philip III (the Bold)		1270
1271	Marco Polo travels to China 1271-1295	183 Gregory X							1271
1272	William Wallace (1272-1305) Scottish national hero. Son of a small landowner, he began his attacks on English settlements and garrisons in 1297, after Edward I declared himself ruler of Scotland. His army defeated a much larger English force at Stirling Bridge, captured Stirling Castle, and then ravaged N England, for which Wallace was knighted and proclaimed guardian of the Scottish kingdom. In 1298 Edward I invaded Scotland and defeated Wallace at the Battle of Falkirk. Disgraced, Wallace resigned his guardianship and was replaced by the future Robert I, but apparently continued to fight a guerrilla war. In 1305 he was arrested by the English and hanged, then disemboweled, beheaded, and quartered. The next year Robert raised the rebellion that eventually won independence for Scotland.					Edward I Longshanks			1272
1273	Rudolph I becomes the first Habsburg ruler of Austria								1273
1274	Council of Lyon II								1274
1275				John XI Beccus					1275
1276	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM	184 Innocent V							1276
1277		187 Nicholas III							1277
1281		188 Martin IV							1281
1282	1282-84: Edward I of England defeats Wales			Joseph I Galesiotes	Andronicus II				1282
1283	Jews are massacred in Germany			Gregory II Cyprius					1283
1285		189 Honorius IV					Philip IV (the Fair)		1285
1286	Alexander III, King of Scotland dies while travelling to meet his new bride, Yolande de Dreux, near Kinghorn in Fife. Scottish nobles gather at Scone to elect six Guardians who will act as a provisional government, The Community of the Realm of Scotland. The Guardians will work to protect Scotland in the name of Alexander's only surviving relative, his three-year-old granddaughter, Margaret, the Maid of Norway and Scotland's Queen-in-waiting.								1286
1288		190 Nicholas IV							1288
1289				Athanasius I					1289
1290	The Teutonic Knights conquer all of Prussia								1290
1291	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM Edward I bullies Scottish lords and nobles into recognising him as the supreme overlord of Scotland. Custody of Scotland, together with its castles and their possessions, are handed over to the English king. Court of Claims to the Scottish throne begins in Berwick. The Muslims capture the city of Acre, the last Christian stronghold in the Holy Land. This action sees the end of the Crusades defeated by the Muslims at Acre Hospitallers and Templars move their headquarters from Acre to Cyprus and Teutonic Knights move their headquarters from Acre to Venice the Moslems expel the Crusaders from the Middle East								1291
1292	John Balliol is named as the new King of Scotland and is enthroned at Scone on St Andrew's Day.	Vacant,							1292
1294	Edward I declares war on France. King John and his Scottish nobles refuse to fight the French on the side of the English - they are soon joined in revolt by the Welsh. England and Portugal sign a commercial treaty which begins a long friendly relationship between the two Most exaggerated claims for the mediaeval Papacy; humiliated byPhilip the Fair of France the hermit Pope Celestine V abdicates after a few months	191 St. Celestine V		John XII Cosmas					1294
1295	Edward I summons the Model Parliament								1295
1296	Scots rebel against Edward I of England. War begins between England and Scotland. English army massacre civilians at Berwick and Scots retaliate by doing the same throughout Northumberland. The English army marches north and takes Dunbar, Roxburgh, Jedburgh, Edinburgh, Stirling and Montrose. Edward takes the Stone of Destiny from Scone, then moves back south to Berwick to take the oaths of loyalty from over 2000 Scottish nobles (the Ragman Roll).								1296
1297	Scots rebel against Edward I of England. William Wallace kills the Sheriff of Lanark and joins a campaign supported by the Bishop of Glasgow, Robert Wishart, to drive English sheriffs from Scotland. Wallace gathers a small peasant army to chase Edward's justiciar, William Ormesby, from Scone Abbey. Wallace defeats the English Garrison in Glasgow at the Battle of the Bell o' the Brae. The Scottish nobles gather at Irvine, but are forced to surrender to an army of English knights. Wallace is joined by the army of Andrew Murray, who has successfully reclaimed the north-east from the English. The army of Wallace and Murray rout a vastly superior English army at Stirling Bridge.								1297
1298	William Wallace is knighted and appointed Guardian of the Kingdom of Scotland. Edward I invades Scotland with a powerful army, made up predominantly of Irish and Welsh infantry. The Scottish army are defeated at the Battle of Falkirk. Wallace steps down as Guardian of Scotland, to be replaced by Robert Bruce and John Comyn.								1298
1299	Ottoman Empire founded in Turkey								1299
1300	Bruce resigns as joint Guardian of Scotland and is replaced Ingram de Umfraville, a kinsman of King John, and ally of Comyn. England invades Scotland and refuse a personal demand from John Comyn to restore King John and give up Scottish lands. Continued diplomatic pressure from France and Rome (where Wallace was acting as an envoy) forces Edward to sign a truce and promise to release the Bishop of Glasgow from his English prison. Boniface VIII announces the first Jubilee Year during which special indulgences are granted								1300
1302	The Pope overrides the English terms of King John's release and hands him over to the French. Wallace returns from France with news of possible assistance from King Philip IV. Robert Bruce, fearing a return by King John would mean transfer of power to his enemy, John Comyn, defects to Edward. The French are defeated by a Flemish peasant army at Courtrai.								1302
1303	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM Wallace, Comyn and Simon Fraser continue to struggle against English occupation and defeat an English expeditionary force at Roslin, near Edinburgh. Edward invades again with a full-strength force, after having signed a peace treaty with a much-weakened France. Wallace gains financial support from Bishop Wishart of Glasgow to continue the struggle.	193 Benedict XI		Athanasius I					1303
1304	Wallace's small force is defeated by an army of English knights at Happrew, near Peebles. Wallace survives, but becomes a fugitive. Edward lays siege to Stirling Castle, the last major fortification to resist Edward's army.								1304
1305	Philip IV of France secures the election of a French Pope, Clement V, who moved the Papal court from Rome to Avignon, France in 1309 William Wallace is betrayed and captured by John Menteith while visiting Glasgow to meet with Robert Bruce. Wallace is arrested in Scottland by the English taken to London for a trial and was subsequently hanged, drawn, and quartered at Smithfield. the French archbishop of Bordeaux becomes pope Clement V and moves the papacy to Avignon in France the peak of France's influence over the papacy	A 194 Clement V							1305
1306	New Scottish rebellion against English rule led by Robert Bruce. Robert I the Bruce crowned King of Scotland (to 1329) at Scone The Jews are expelled from France								1306
1307	Edward I dies on march north to crush Robert Bruce. Edward II King of England (to 1327)					Edward II			1307
1309	Papacy moves to Avignon, 1309; lines of Popes reside at Avignon, Rome, and Pisa during the Babylonia Captivity (1309-1377) and the Great Schism (1378-1417). the Teutonic Knights move their capital from Venice to Prussia and establishes a theocratic state the Hospitallers conquer the island of Rhodes and move their capital there establishing an ecclesiastical principality under the eastern Roman empire								1309
1310				Nephon I					1310
1311	1311-1312 Council of Vienne								1311
1312	Order of Knights Templar abolished. The Hospitallers are awarded the Templars' possessions in western Europe Cyprus and Greece								1312
1313	Pope Clement V abolishes the order of the Knights Templar after drumming up false accusations for the purpose of seizing their wealthy assetts with the help of French king Philippe IV								1313
1314	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM Battle of Bannockburn: Robert Bruce defeats Edward II and makes Scotland independent Last Templars Grand Master, Jacques de Molay, tortured & burned by Philip IV of France. Jacques de Molay the grand master of the Templars is burned at the stake in Paris	Vacant,					Louis X (the Stubborn)		1314
1315				John XIII Glycys					1315
1316		A 195 John XXII					John I Philip V (the Tall)		1316
1320				Gerasimus I					1320
1321	Franciscan monk William of Occam is excommunicated for preaching that the Church should not own properties								1321
1322							Charles IV (the Fair)		1322
1323	The Church condemns Paschal II's apostolic poverty as heresy			Isaiah, Jesaias					1323
1324	Marco Polo dies Franciscan monk Marsilio da Padova publishes "Defender Of Peace in which he argues that the Church has not authority over secular affairs and that the purpose of a state is to guarantee peace								1324
1325	Beginning of the Renaissance in Italy Peak of the Muslim Empire in Spain Small cannon begins use								1325
1327	1327-77: Edward III rules in England and is the rival of Philip VI of Valois German emperor Ludwig IV invades Italy and appoints pope John XXII					Edward III			1327
1328	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM 1328-50: Philip VI of Valois rules in France and the Valois dynsaty is founded as a runoff of the Capetian dynsaty English win a major naval battle against the French at Sluis, in the Netherlands				Andronicus III		Valois Dynasty Philip VI		1328
1334		A 196 Benedict XII		John XIV Calecas					1334
1336	Jews are massacred in Germany								1336
1337	Hundred Years War between England and France begun when the French under Philip VI of Valois invades English Gascony								1337
1338	England allies with the Holy Roman Empire								1338
1340	Edwardian phase of the Hundred Years' War: England wins many victories and wins control of most of southwestern France Alfonso XI of Castile wins major victory over the Moors at the Battle of the Salado River English win a major naval battle against the French at Sluis, in the Netherlands								1340
1341					John V				1341
1342		A 197 Clement VI							1342
1346	First land battle of the Hundred Years War: Battle of Crecy won by the English								1346
1347	The English capture Calais 1347-51: The Black plague: 25 million dead the "black death" (the plague) causes the decline of monasticism			Isidore I Bucharis	John VI Cantancuzenus				1347
1350	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM Sergius of Radonezh founds the Monastery of the Holy Trinity (at Sergiev Posad the new center of Russian christianity			Callistus I			John II (the Good)		1350
1352		A 198 Innocent VI							1352
1353				Philotheus Coccinus					1353
1355				Callistus I					1355
1356	Battle of Poitiers won decisively by the English led by Edward the Black Prince, French King John II taken prisoner								1356
1360	Peace of Bretigny signed by the French and English forces the French to cede all of Aquitaine to the English								1360
1362		A 199 Urban V							1362
1364	King Charles V rules in France: leads the French in the Caroline phase of the Hundred Years' War			Philotheus Coccinus			Charles V (the Wise)		1364
1369	1369-72: Ottomans conquer Bulgaria 1369-89: Caroline Phase of the Hundred Years' War: French oppose the English but only partial victory is acheived and they expel the English from much of France								1369
1370		R 200 Gregory XI leaves Avignon, 1376; returns to Rome, 1377							1370
1372	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM A Castilian (Spanish) fleet defeats the English fleet off La Rochelle								1372
1376	The Good Parliament in England called by Edward the Black Prince introduces many reforms of government; Death of Edward the Black Prince aged 45; The Civil Dominion of John Wyclif an Oxford don calling for Church reforms			Macarius	Andronicus IV				1376
1377	The French launch an offensive against the English that supported by their navy that leaves the English with only a few coastal areas; the French and Castilian navies begin to attack the British shoreline and the English are forced to take the offensive pope Gregory XI moves back the papacy to Rome from Avignon					Richard II			1377
1378	1378-1417: The Great Schism: Popes fight for control of the Roman Catholic Church in Avignon, France and Rome, Italy pope Gregory XI dies and the Roman nobles elect Bartolomeo Prignano as pope Urban VI the Oxford theologian John Wycliffe preaches that the Church has fallen into sin that it ought to give up all its property and that the clergy should live in complete poverty	R 201 Urban VI resides at Rome, Anti-Pope elected at Avignon; Great Schism							1378
1379				Nilus Cerameus	John V (restored)				1379
1380	1380-1422: At the same time as the Great Schism, the French King Charles VI rules in France c. 1380 John Wycliffe (c. 1320 - 1384), an English priest, begins the first English translation of the Bible.						Charles VI (the Mad, Well-Beloved, or Foolish)		1380
1385	House of Aviz formed by John I who succeeded the Portugese throne after 2 years of civil war, during his reign the Portugese carved a huge colonial empire; John I defeats Castile at the Battle of Ajubarrota Lithuania converts to christianity as is unified with Poland								1385
1386	Permanent alliance between England and Portugal at the Treaty of Windsor								1386
1389	Caroline Phase of the Hundred Years' War ends with France's partial sucess the Serbs are defeated by Ottoman Turks of Sultan Murad I	R 202 Boniface IX		Anthony IV					1389
1390				Macarius	John VII				1390
1391	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM The Jews of Iberia are forced to convert			Anthony IV	Manuel II				1391
1392	Charles VI of France attacked by mental illness: Philip the Bold of Burgundy seizes French power								1392
1394		A [Benedict (XIII)] 1394-1417 d.1423							1394
1396	Philip the Bold of France signs a new and longer truce with England the English translation of the Bible begun by John Wycliffe is completed (the "Wycliffe" Bible) but is declared heretic by the Church (the "Vulgate" being the only authorized version)								1396
1397	Kalmar Agreement unites Denmark, Norway and Sweden			Callistus II Xanthopulus					1397
1399	Richard II of England overthrown by his cousin Henry IV of Lancaster					Plantagenet, Lancastrian Line Henry IV Bolingbroke			1399
1404	Philip the Bold of Burgundy dies and is succeeded by his son John the Fearless in Burgundy Battle of Formigny won by French due to artillery and Normandy falls to the French shortly after English defeated by the French at the Battle of Castillon and the English lose Aquitaine; English expelled from France except for Port Calais and the war ends Isabella of Spain convokes a great Cortes (Parliament) in Toledo Ottoman Turks annex Hungary Ottoman Turks make peace with Persia	R 203 Innocent VII							1404
1406		R 204 Gregory XII 1406-1415 d.1417							1406
1407	John the Fearless of Burgundy plunges France into civil war								1407
1409	Council of Pisa,adds third Pope at Pisa	P Alexander V							1409
1410	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM the Teutonic Knights are defeated by Jagiello's Polish-Lithuanian army at the battle of Tannenberg	P [John (XXIII)] 1410-1415 d.1419							1410
1412	St. Joan of Arc, Born at Domremy in Champagne, probably on 6 January, 1412; Burnt at the stake at Rouen, 30 May, 1431.								1412
1413						Henry V			1413
1414	1414-1418 Council of Constance, called by Emperor Sigismund, Papal interregnum 1415-1417, resolves Great Schism, but principle of Council is threat to Papal authority								1414
1415	Battle of Agincourt won by King Henry V of the English; Portugese advance in Morocco successful after the capture of Ceuta 1415-35: The Lancastrian Phase of the Hundred Years' War: The English have inital success with an alliance with Burgundy, but the French halt the English advance the heretic Jan Hus is burned at the stake at Constance for opposing the sale of indulgences and claiming that the Church is a human invention	Vacant,							1415
1416				Joseph II					1416
1417	English begin conquest of Normandy the Western Schism ends at the council of Constance with the election of Martin V	205 Martin V							1417
1418	John the Fearless of Burgundy occupies London 1418-60: Portugal sponsers the exploration of the African coastline								1418
1420	English capture Paris and the French are forced to sign the Treaty of Troyes which disinherited the dauphin made Henry V of England became the new heir to the French throne								1420
1422	Henry V dies in England Charles the dauphin of France is named Charles VII after his father Charles VI dies and begins to fight in southern and central France against the English and reigns until 1461					Henry VI	Charles VII (the Well-Served or Victorious)		1422
1423	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM German Civil War 1423-29: French and Scots wage war with English	A [Clement (VIII)] 1423-1429							1423
1424	English Duke of Bedford defeats the French at the battle of Verneuil								1424
1425					John VIII				1425
1427	Portugal discovers the Azores								1427
1428	English besiege Orleans								1428
1429	English advance in France halted A French force led by military commander Joan of Arc (Jeanne d'Arc) relieves the siege of Orleans; Charles VII crowned king of France at Rheims , deep in English teritory								1429
1430	Burgundians hand over Joan of Arc to the English and she is executed the next year								1430
1431	1431-1445 Council of Basil. St. Joan of Arc, Burnt at the stake at Rouen, 30 May, 1431.	(Eugenius) IV							1431
1435	Burgundy changes allegiance from England to France: English forces seriously overextended, and the English are evtually driven from France								1435
1436	French regain Paris								1436
1437	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM James I of the Scots assassinated								1437
1439	Council at Ferrara & Florence, 1439-1440, attended by John VIII Palaeologus. Emperor John VIII, hoping for Western military aid against the Turks, travels to Italy and negotiates a reunion of the Eastern and Western Churches at the Council of Florence. When he returns East, leaders of the Greek Orthodox Church refuse to accept the reunion. Treaty between Roman Catholic Church and Eastern Orthodox Church								1439
1440	1440-93: Frederick III rules the Holy Roman Empire			Metrophanes II					1440
1441	Second Ottoman siege of Constantinople								1441
1443				Gregory III Mammas					1443
1444	Treaty of Tours: five-year peace with England and France; Portugal sails as far as Cape Verde								1444
1447		207 Nicholas V							1447
1448	Renaissance begins Prince Basil II of Russia imprisons Bishop Isidore of Moscow, a Greek, for accepting the reunion of Florence. The Russian Orthodox Church declares its organizational independence from Constantinople and elects the first native-born Russian bishop, Jonas I.								1448
1449	France at war with England, recovers Normandy				Constantine XI (XIII) Paleologos				1449
1450	Florence becomes the centre of the Renaissance Battle of Formigny won by French due to artillery and Normandy falls to the French shortly after			Athanasius II					1450
1452	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM Leonardo DaVinci, the quintessential Renaissance man of enduring genius born in the Tuscan village of Vinci.								1452
1453	Fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans under Mehmet II. Last Byzantine Emperor Constantine Paleologos dies during final assult on the City. Ottomans change its name to Istanbul, which is the phonetic pronunciation in Greek of ³To The City² (ees-teen-poli). End of the Byzantine Empire 1453-1455 Patriarchaye at Church of the Holy Apostles English defeated by the French at the Battle of Castillon and the English lose Aquitaine; English expelled from France except for Port Calais and the 100-year war ends.			Gennadius II Scholarius	Last Emperor of The Eastern Roman Empire, Byzantium, Constantine XI (XIII) Paleologos is killed in the final battle defending Constantinople				1453
1455	1455-1587 Patriarchate at Convent of St. Mary Pammakaristos 1455-85: English Wars of the Roses	208 Calixtus III							1455
1456	Ottomans capture Athens 1456-1462: Reign of Vlad the Impaler.			Isidore II Xanthopulus					1456
1458		209 Pius II							1458
1460	Portugese reach Sierra Leone								1460
1461	Last piece of Romania, the fortress of Monemvasia, ceded by theDespot Thomas.					Plantagenet, Yorkist Line Edward IV	Louis XI (the Spider)		1461
1462	1462-1505: Ivan the Great rules as the first czar in Russia, ends tribute payed to the Mongols Vlad IV of Walachia is defeated by Ottoman Sultan Muhammad II								1462
1463				Syropulus					1463
1464		210 Paul II		Joseph, Ioasaph					1464
1466	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM Kazimierz IV's Polish army defeats the Teutonic Knights and annexes western Prussia to Poland			Marcus II Xylokaraves					1466
1469	Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile marry to form a united Spain								1469
1471		211 Sixtus IV		Symeon I of Trebizond		Again, Edward IV			1471
1473	Nicolaus Copernicus Born: 19 Feb 1473 in Torun, Poland								1473
1475				Raphael I					1475
1476				Maximus III					1476
1478	Sixtus IV authorizes the Spanish Inquisition Ottomans conquer Albania								1478
1480	Mongols driven from Russia Isabella of Spain convokes a great Cortes (Parliament) in Toledo								1480
1481				Symeon I of Trebizond					1481
1482				Symeon I of Trebizond					1482
1483	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM					Edward V	Charles VIII (Father of his People)		1483
1484	Pope Innocent VIII orders the persecution of witches	212 Innocent VIII							1484
1485	Henry VII becomes first Tudor King of England					House of Tudor Henry VII Tudor			1485
1486	Pico della Mirandola a student of the Kabbalah tries to reconcile all religions and philosophies			Nephon II					1486
1487	Battle of Stoke Field: In final engagement of the Wars of the Roses Henry VII defeats Yorkist army "led" by Lambert Simnel (who was impersonating Edward the nephew of Edward IV the only plausible royal alternative to Henry who was confined in the Tower of London).								1487
1489				Dionysius I					1489
1491				Maximus IV					1491
1492	Christopher Colombus sails west in search of the Indies. Disvovery of the Americas. The New World Moors driven from their last stronghold in Granada Granada is reconquered by the Christians Treaty of Etaples signed by England and France which settled their outstanding difference pope Alexander VI and his son Cesare Borgia become famous for their cruelty Jews and Muslims are expelled from Spain	213 Alexander VI Borgia							1492
1493	1493-96: Columbus's second voyage								1493
1494	Treaty of Tordesillas gives Portugal territory in Brazil								1494
1495	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM 1495-1521: Portugese power reaches it's height under King Emanuel, but at the end of his reign Portugal began to decline								1495
1497	1497-99: Vasco da Gama makes first voyage to India The Dominican monk Girolamo Savonarola is excommunicated and hanged and burnt as an heretic John Cabot discovers Newfoundland.			Nephon II					1497
1498	Columbus's Third Voyage			Joachim I			Louis XII		1498
1500	European Jews divide into "Sephardim" (Spanish and Portuguese Jews) and "Askenazim" (German and Polish Jews								1500
1501	First black slaves in America								1501
1502	Portugese build colony in India Columbus's Fourth Voyage			Nephon II					1502
1503	Giuliano Della Rovere is elected pope Julius II	214 Pius III 215 Julius II							1503
1504				Joachim I					1504
1506	Treaty of Tordesillas between Spain and Portugal Pope Julius II decides to rebuild the Basilica of St Peter								1506
1509	the Dutch humanist Desiderius Erasmus publishes "The Praise of Folie which advocates a return to the moral values of early Christianity					Henry VIII			1509
1512	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM 215 Julius II recovers by combat all of Papal States, 1512-1517; Lateran Council V								1512
1513	Giovanni de' Medici is elected pope Leo X	216 Leo X Medici		Theoleptus I					1513
1514	Leo X appoints Raphael chief architect of Saint Peter's Basilica								1514
1515							Francis I		1515
1516	1516-1917 Ottoman Empire rule Charles I of Spain acsends the throne of Spain a Jewish ghetto is instituted in Venezia a Greek translation of the New Testament done by Erasmus (Desiderius Erasmus Roterodamus) is printed								1516
1517	Reformation begins The Protestant Reformation begins at Wittenberg when Martin Luther publishes his "95 Theses" against the Catholic practice of selling indulgences . Leo X dismissed Martin Luther as "some drunken German," but Luther's movement not only shook Francia, it shattered it. A division something like the Great Schism happened again, but this time it was not over who would be Pope, but whether there would be a Pope at all. Protestantism is born Ottomans conquer Egypt and rule Arabia the Ottoman empire conquers Jerusalem								1517
1519	Ferdinand Magellan circumnavigates the globe Charles I of Spain chosen Holy Roman Emperor Charles V Reformation in Switzerland								1519
1520	Luther excommunicated by Pope Leo X Luther creates his German translation of the New Testament. 1520-1566: Height of the Ottoman Empire by Seleiman I								1520
1521	Ottoman Turks invade Hungary 1521-29: Spain at war with France Henry VIII receives the title "Defender of the Faith" from Pope Leo X for his opposition to Luther .								1521
1522	a Dutch is elected Adrian VI	217 Adrian VI		Jeremias I					1522
1523	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM Giulio de' Medici is elected pope Clement VII	218 Clement VII							1523
1525	Peace between England and France made by Henry VIII the grand master of the Teutonic Knights is appointed duke of Prussia								1525
1526	Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent destroys the Hungarain kingdom after the Battle of Mohacs. Spain orders all ships to travel in groups due to pirates Tyndale creates his English version of the Pentateuch. Martin Luther prints his German translation of the Bible								1526
1527	Holy Roman Empire attacks Rome, imprisons Pope Clement VII- end of the Italian Renaissance, Sweden becomes Lutheran								1527
1529	Henry VIII declares himself head of the English church, forcibly cuts the Anglican bishops off from communion with Rome, calls the Reformation Parliament, and marries Anne Boleyn. The Anglican Church is born Ottomans reach Vienna								1529
1530	1530s: Spanish discover silver and gold mines in the New World defeated at Rhodes by the Turks the Hospitallers move to Malta under the king of Spain								1530
1532	Sir Thomas More resigns over the question of Henry VIII's divorce								1532
1533	Spain conquers the Inca Empire in Peru 1533-37: Danish Civil War 1533-84: Reign of Ivan IV the Terrible Henry VIII marries Anne Boleyn and is excommunicated by Pope Clement VII; Thomas Cranmer appointed Archbishop of Canterbury								1533
1534	Henry VIII declares himself supreme head of the Church of England	219 Paul III							1534
1535	1535-38: Ferdinand's second Spanish-French War Spain attacks Tunis Sir Thomas More is beheaded in Tower of London for failing to take the Oath of Supremacy								1535
1536	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM Reformation reaches Norway and Denmark William Tyndale is burned at the stake for translating the Bible into English Anne Boleyn is beheaded; Henry VIII marries Jane Seymour; dissolution of monasteries in England begins under the direction of Thomas Cromwell completed in 1539.								1536
1537	Jane Seymour dies after the birth of a son the future Edward VI								1537
1540	Ignatius of Loyola founds the Society of Jesus (Jesuits which believes in free will and in salvation through good deeds (not just faith) Henry VIII marries Anne of Cleves following negotiations by Thomas Cromwell; Henry divorces Anne of Cleves and marries Catherine Howard; Thomas Cromwell executed on charge of treason.								1540
1541	Reformation in Scotland, establishes the Presbyterian Church Spain attacks Algiers Ottoman Turks annex Hungary								1541
1542	1542-44: Ferdinand's third Spanish-French War Catherine Howard is executed								1542
1543	Nicolaus Copernicus publishes De Revolutionibus with dedication to the Pope, dies. Henry VIII marries Catherine Parr; alliance between Henry and Charles V (Holy Roman Emperor) against Scotland and France								1543
1545	1545-1563 Council of Trent 19th Ecumenical Council 1545-1650: French Wars of Religion								1545
1546				Joannicus I					1546
1547	Ivan IV "The Terrible" becomes Czar of Russia the Pope convenes the first Council of Trento in response to the Protestant Reformation ("counter-reformation					Edward VI	Henry II		1547
1549	The Catholic missionary Frances Xavier reaches Japan								1549
1550	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM	220 Julius III							1550
1551	1551-59: Ferdinand's fourth Spanish-French War, treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis ends wars between Spain and France and Spain becomes the dominant power in Italy Archbishop Cranmer publishes Forty-two Articles of religion.								1551
1553	Edward VI dies, Queen (Bloody) Mary I succeeds him, restores the Catholic Church to England Ottoman Turks make peace with Persia					Lady Jane Grey			1553
1554	Execution of Lady Jane Grey								1554
1555		221 Marcellus II		Joseph, Joasaph II					1555
1556	Phillip II ascends the Spanish throne 1556-1598: Reign of Phillip II of Spain								1556
1557	France declares bankruptcy								1557
1558	Elizabeth I becomes Queen of England, restores Protestant Church English lose Port Calais to France					Elizabeth I			1558
1559	French and Habsburgs sign the Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis, ending Spain's wars with France 1559-1598: French Wars of Religion	223 Pius IV					Francis II		1559
1560	Madrid made capital of Spain Ottoman Turks destroy Spanish fleet The Geneva Bible is created. This version is the one used by Shakespeare and also by the Pilgrims who came to the United States on the Mayflower. Treaty of Berwick between Elizabeth I and Scottish reformers; Treaty of Edinburgh among England France and Scotland						Charles IX		1560
1561	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM Edict of Orleans ends persecution Huguenots in France								1561
1563	The Thirty-nine Articles which complete establishment of the Anglican Church								1563
1564	Ivan IV battles the Boyars (nobles) for power in Russia William Shakespeare born. Michelangelo builds the dome of St. Peter's Church in Rome								1564
1565				Metrophanes III					1565
1566		224 St. Pius V							1566
1567	Joseph Karo/Caro publishes the "Shulhan Aruk the code of Jewish law Murder of Lord Darnley husband of Mary Queen of Scots probably by Earl of Bothwell; Mary Queen of Scots marries Bothwell is imprisoned and forced to abdicate; James VI King of Scotland								1567
1568	The political divisions of the Reformation were settled by war. Protestant Netherlands, revolts against Catholic Spain Mary Queen of Scots escapes to England and is imprisoned by Elizabeth I at Fotheringay Castle.								1568
1570	Spanish and Italian fleets defeat Turkey at the Battle of Lepanto								1570
1571	Tatars invade and burn Moscow								1571
1572	Peace of Constantinople ends Turkish attacks on Europe Tycho Brahe observes supernova, demonstrates lack of parallax, becomes famous	225 Gregory XIII		Jeremias II Tranos					1572
1574	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM 1574-76: Fifth Huguenot War in France						Henry III		1574
1576	Spanish troops sack Antwerp								1576
1577	Alliance between England and Netherlands; Francis Drake sails around the world (to 1580 )								1577
1578	1578-1655: Spain rules Portugal								1578
1579				Metrophanes III					1579
1580	1580-1640: House of Aviz ends, Sixty Years' Captivity of Portugal by Spain			Jeremias II Tranos					1580
1581	Russians settle Siberia								1581
1582	5/15 October 1582 Gregorian Calendar instituted The Geneva Bible is created. This version is the one used by Shakespeare and also by the Pilgrims who came to the United States on the Mayflower. Pope Gregory XIII institutes the Gregorian Calendar								1582
1584	William of Orange assassinated			Pachomius II					1584
1585		226 Sixtus V		Theoleptus II					1585
1586	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM 1587-1597 Patriarchate at Palace of the Wallachians, Vlach Saray								1586
1587	Mary, Queen of the Scots, is executed Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots, was born on December 8, 1542. She was well known for her beauty, her wit, her learning, and her misfortunes. She was the daughter of James V of Scotland by Marie of Lorraine, a French princess of the family of Guise. Her father died a few days after her birth, and on September 9, 1543, she was crowned queen of Scotland. In 1548 she was pledged in marriage to Francis, Dauphin of France, son of Henry II and Catharine de'Medic, and in the same year she was brought to France to be educated at the French court. When she grew up she added to a striking and fascinating personal beauty all the accomplishments and charms which a perfect education can give. Her marriage with the dauphin was celebrated April 24, 1558, in the Church of Notre Dame, and when Mary I of England died in the same year, she opposed the crowning of Elizabeth I. On July 10, 1559, Henry Ii died and was succeeded by Francis II. Mary thus became Queen of France, but Francis died December 5, 1560. She was childless and had littlepower at court, where the influence of Catharine de'Medici was now paramount. In the same year her mother died, and she then returned to Scotland. Brought up a Roman Catholic and used to the carefree life of the French court, she found the dominant Protestantism of Scotland and the austere manners of her subjects almost intolerable. Nevertheless, the first period of her reign was fairly successful; and she strove to placate the Protestants. The Protestants, however, were soon estranged by her unfortunate marriage with her cousin, Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley, a Catholic, who on February 9, 1567, was blown up by gunpowder as the result of a treacherous plot he himself inspired. Three months later Mary married Earl of Bothwell, whom public opinion accused of the murder of Darnley. From this time a series of misfortunes struck the queen and a general revolutionary uprising took place. In the battle of Carberry Hill, Bothwell was defeated and fled, and Mary was confined in Lochleven Castle and compelled to abdicate. She escaped with her life and fled to England. Here she was immediately imprisoned, first at Carlisle, afterwards in various other places, and last in Fotheringay Castle. She was imprisoned for 18 years and finally beheaded by Elizabeth on October 25, 1586. Sixtus V creates Congregation of the Holy Roman and Universal Inquisition or Holy Office 1587-1616: William Shakespeare's productive years			Jeremias II Tranos					1587
1588	1588: 1588: Spanish Empire at it's height consists of most of South America, Central America, Mexico, Florida, Cuba and the Phillipines Defeat of Spanish Armada, turning point of the Spanish Empire								1588
1589	1589-1610: "Good King Henry" or Henry IV of France reigns as one of France's most beloved kings Patriarch Jeremias II of Constantinople raises Metropolitan Job of Moscow to the rank of Patriarch of Moscow and of All Russia, making him the head of the largest Orthodox church. Moscow would come to be called "the Third Rome."						Bourbon Dynasty Henry IV		1589
1590		227 Urban VII							1590
1591		229 Innocent IX							1591
1592		230 Clement VIII							1592
1593	Henry IV of France publically converts to Catholicism								1593
1594	Henry IV crowned King of France at Chartres Cathedral and establishes the Bourbon dynasty and basically ends the French wars of religion								1594
1596	At the Union of Brest-Litovsk, several million Ukrainian and Byelorussian Orthodox Christians, living under Polish rule, leave the Russian Orthodox Church and recognize the Pope of Rome, without giving up their Byzantine liturgy and customs. This was the beginning of what is variously known as the Uniate, Eastern Rite Catholic, or Greek Catholic Church.			Matthew II					1596
1597	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM Irish rebellion under Hugh O'Neill Earl of Tyrone (finally put down 1601) 1597-1599 Patriarchate at St. Demetrius Monastery at Xyloporta			Theophanes I Karykes					1597
1598	Treaty of Nantes ends French civil war between Protestants and Catholics, and Spanish troops expelled from France Boris Godunov becomes Czar of Russia			Matthew II					1598
1600	Johannes Kepler, 29, meets Tycho, 53, in Prague Elizabeth I grants charter to East India Company Patriarchate at Church of St. George, Phanar Quarter the philosopher Giordano Bruno is executed as an heretic in Rome for claiming that the universe is infinite								1600
1601	Elizabethan Poor Law charges the parishes with providing for the needy; Essex attempts rebellion and is executed								1601
1602	1600-1608:William Shakespeare's period for great tragedies: Hamlet, King Lear, Macbeth			Neophytus II					1602
1603	Sir Walter Raleigh arrested, tried and imprisoned			Matthew II		House of Stuart James I			1603
1604	King James (1566-1625) of England commissions the "King James" translation of the Bible								1604
1605	Gunpowder Plot; Guy Fawkes and other Roman Catholic conspirators fail in attempt to blow up Parliament and James I	231 Leo XI							1605
1606	Rembrandt (1606-1669) born.								1606
1607	Spain goes bankrupt; English found Jamestown Dutch destroy Spanish fleet at Gibraltar			Neophytus II					1607
1608	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM Polish army occupy Moscow and set up a puppet Samuel de Champlain establishes Quebec								1608
1609	Nine-year truce between Spain and Holland agreed Samuel de Champlain founds French colony in Quebec Catholic League formed to counter Protestant Union in Germany								1609
1610	Galileo publishes Sidereus Nuncius (Starry Messenger or Message). Kepler defends it without having seen telescope Hudson Bay discovered.						Louis XIII		1610
1611	James I's authorized version (King James Version) of the Bible is completed; English and Scottish Protestant colonists settle in Ulster Gustavus Adolphus elected King of Sweden.								1611
1612	A Stock Exchange is founded in Amsterdam			Cyril I Lucaris					1612
1613	Russian National Assembly chooses Michael Romanov as the new tsar Spanish invade the Bavarian Palatinate in Germany								1613
1614	James I dissolves the "Addled Parliament" which has failed to pass any legislation								1614
1616	William Shakespeare dies								1616
1618	1618-1648:Thirty Years' War between Catholics and Protestants: Protestants in Germany fight the Catholics for freedom, and are later supported by Denmark, Sweden and then France, the war devastates Germany As the Spanish kept trying to defeat the Dutch since the 1568 revolt, the Emperor moved to suppress heresy in Bohemia. After Imperial forces secured Bohemia and advanced in Germany, France began to subsidize opposition. This brought Sweden into the war; and after Swedish fortunes faded, France, a Catholic state, entered the war against the Catholic side. Spanish power was permanently weakened.								1618
1619	Kepler publishes Harmony of the World containing 3rd law 1619-1624:Dutch monopoly over Spice Trade in Indonesia								1619
1620	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM Imperial army commanded by Tilly routes Bohemians at White Mountain near Prague Pilgrims aboard the "Mayflower" land first on Cape Cod near where Provincetown will later stand, then the next day land on the mainland and found the Plymoth Plantation. The first rock they step on coming of the ship is remembered as Plymouth Rock. The colony establishes a foothold in what will later become Massachusetts.			Cyril I Lucaris					1620
1621		233 Gregory XV							1621
1622	Protestants defeat Tilly at Wiesloch in April Moliere (1622-73) is born.								1622
1623	Publication of Shakespeare's First Folio	234 Urban VIII		Cyril I Lucaris					1623
1624	Louis XIII chooses Cardinal Richelieu as his first minister								1624
1625	1625-29: Danish phase of the Thirty Years' War: Christian IV of Denmark and Norway, supported by Lutheran and Calvinist princes, invades Saxony for mostly non-religious resasons, but is unsuccessful					Charles I			1625
1626	Dutch found New Amsterdam (New York Saint Peter's Basilica is inaugurated in Rome								1626
1627	Christian IV of Denmark retreats into the Jutland peninsula Edict of Restitution: Nullifies all Protestant lands in Catholic territory, total victory for the Imperial cause is noticed								1627
1628	Petition of Right; Charles I forced to accept Parliament's statement of civil rights in return for finances								1628
1629	1629-32 Galileo publishes Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems. Five months after publication it is banned and Galileo summoned to Rome. He goes. Kepler dies in 1630 Treaty of Lubeck deprives Denmark of territories in northern Germany								1629
1630	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM Third phase of the Thirty Years' War: Sweden invades northern Germany with the support of Protestants and France Dutch colonists invade Brazil from the Portugese (occupied by Spain) Swedish invade Pomerania under Gustav II Adolph Holy Roman Empire seiges Magdeburg 1631: Imperial troops sack Magdeburg, Germany								1630
1633	Trial of Galileo Galilei Galileo is convicted of heresy, confined to house arrest, forbidden to publish anything.			Cyril I Lucaris					1633
1634				Cyril I Lucaris					1634
1635	Third and last phase of the Thirty Years' War								1635
1636				Neophytus III					1636
1637				Cyril I Lucaris					1637
1638	Louis XIV was born on September 5, 1638 of Louis XIII of France and Anne of Austria. Louis XIII died in 1643, and Anne aided by Cardinal Mazarin, ruled as regents in place of Louis XIV in France.								1638
1639				Parthenius I					1639
1640	Portugal becomes independent of Spain English civil war between the Cavaliers (Loyalty) and Roundheads (Parliament) Cardinal Richelieu dies								1640
1642	1642-43 Galileo dies. Isaac Newton is born. French found Montreal Charles I fails in attempt to arrest five members of Parliament and rejects Parliament's Nineteen Propositions; Civil War (until 1645) begins with battle of Edgehill between Cavaliers (Royalists) and Roundheads (Parliamentarians								1642
1643	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM Louis XIV becomes King of France and names Cardinal Mazarin as his first minister Solemn League and Covenant is signed by Parliament .						Louis XIV (the Sun King)		1643
1644		235 Innocent X		Parthenius II					1644
1645	Formation of Cromwell's New Model Army; Battle of Naseby; Charles I defeated by Parliamentary forces								1645
1646	English colonize the Bahamas Oliver Cromwell defeats the Royalists Parliament demands reforms. Charles I surrenders to the Scots			Joannicius II					1646
1648	The Treaty of Westphalia in 1648 secured Dutch independence and the Protestant states in Germany. The Pope lost even theoretical and spiritual authority over most of Northern Europe. 200 000 Jews are slaughtered during the Russian invasion of Poland by Cossacks led by Bogdan Chmielnicki			Parthenius II					1648
1649	England declared a Commonwealth. Charles I is tried and executed; The Commonwealth in which ; England is governed as a republic is established and lasts until 1660; Cromwell harshly suppresses Catholic rebellions in Ireland					The Commonwealth Oliver Cromwell			1649
1650	The Jews are expelled from Wien (Vienna) Charles II lands in Scotland; is proclaimed king.								1650
1651				Joannicius II					1651
1652	South Africa beginings: The Dutch set up a mainland base for their East India Company (VOC), in what is now Cape Town, to provide passing ships with food, water and hospitalization for sick sailors. 1652-1654:1st Anglo-Dutch War 1652-8: Patriarch Nikon of Moscow revises liturgical books to bring them into conformity with the Greek Orthodox liturgy. Opponents of this reform were excommunicated from the Russian Orthodox Church and become known as Old Believers, which are now divided into several sects. These excommunications were rescinded in 1971.			Cyril III					1652
1653	Cromwell made Lord Protector			Joannicius II					1653
1654	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM			Cyril III					1654
1655	England divided into 12 military districts by Cromwell; seizes Jamaica from Spain 1655-60: First Northern War against Sweden 1658: Cromwell dies, son Richard resigns, Puritan government collapses	236 Alexander VII		Joannicius II					1655
1656	War with Spain (until 1659)			Parthenius III					1656
1657				Gabriel II					1657
1658	Oliver Cromwell dies; succeeded as Lord Protector by son Richard; Battle of the Dunes England and France defeat Spain; England gains Dunkirk					Richard Cromwell			1658
1659	Richard Cromwell forced to resign by the army; "Rump" Parliament restored								1659
1660	Parliament asks for Charles II to become King, English Monarchy restored in 1661					House of Stuart, Restored Charles II			1660
1661	Louis XIV takes over French government								1661
1662	Act of Uniformity passed in England			Dionysius III					1662
1663	Turks invade Hungary								1663
1664	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM 1664-65 Plague closes Cambridge. Newton goes to country, discovers laws of motion and gravity, explains orbits, invents calculus, makes discoveries in optics. 1664-1667: English seize New Amsterdam from the Dutch and rename it New York, 2nd Anglo-Dutch War								1664
1665	Great Plague in London the Greek Jewish kabbalist Shabbatai Zvi is hailed as the messiah but then accepts to convert to Islam to save his life			Parthenius IV					1665
1666	Great Fire in London								1666
1667	1667-68: Louis XIV of France makes war against Spain	237 Clement IX		Clement					1667
1668	Triple Alliance of England Netherlands and Sweden against France			Methodius III					1668
1670		238 Clement X							1670
1671				Parthenius IV					1671
1672	1672-78: 3rd Anglo-Dutch War								1672
1673	Moliere dies.			Gerasimus II					1673
1674	Treaty of Westminster between England and the Netherlands								1674
1675	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM			Parthenius IV					1675
1676		239 Innocent XI		Dionysus IV Muselimes					1676
1679	Act of Habeas Corpus passed forbidding imprisonment without trial; Parliament's Bill of Exclusion against the Roman Catholic Duke of York blocked by Charles II; Parliament dismissed; Charles II rejects petitions calling for a new Parliament; petitioners become known as Whigs; their opponents (royalists) known as Tories			Athanasius IV					1679
1682	Edmond Halley, with Newton's aid, has plotted orbits of comets. He shows that comet of 1682 is same as that of 1531 and 1607, predicts return in 1758. Peter the Great becomes Tsar of Russia			Dionysus IV Muselimes					1682
1683	1683-1750: British dominate Portugese trade 1685: Edict of Nantes revoked in France								1683
1684				Parthenius IV					1684
1685				James		James II			1685
1686	German League of Augsburg formed against France			Dionysus IV Muselimes					1686
1687	Newton publishes Principia (Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy) containing laws of motion and gravitation and explaining motions in the sky and on earth with the same laws.			James					1687
1688	English Parliament invites William of Orange to replace James II in fear of restoration of Catholicism			Callinicus II					1688
1689	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM 1689-97: War of the League of Augsburg against France Convention Parliament issues Bill of Rights; establishes a constitutional monarchy in Britain; bars Roman Catholics from the throne; William III and Mary II become joint monarchs of England and Scotland (to1694 Toleration Act grants freedom of worship to dissenters in England; Grand Alliance of the League of Augsburg England and the Netherlands.	240 Alexander VIII		Callinicus II		House of Orange and Stuart William III, Mary II			1689
1690	English set up trading post at Calcutta William III (of Orange) defeats Irish rebels and former King James II								1690
1691		241 Innocent XII							1691
1692	Languedoc Canal connects the Mediterranean with the Bay of Biscay. 240 miles long, with 100 locks, 3 major aqueducts, 1 tunnel, and a summit reservoir. The largest canal project between Roman times and the nineteenth century.								1692
1693				Dionysus IV Muselimes					1693
1694				Callinicus II					1694
1700	Great Northern War: Saxony, Poland, Brandenburg-Prussia, Hannover, Denmark, and Russia joins forces against Sweden for the second time, Sweden loses massive amounts of land in Germany, Poland and the Baltic	242 Clement XI							1700
1702	1702-14: War of the Spanish succession, last of Louis XIV's Wars			Gabriel III		House of Stuart Anne			1702
1707	England, Scotland and Wales joined by the Act of Union, creating the United Kingdom of Great Britain			Neophytus V					1707
1709	Russia defeats Sweden			Athanasius V					1709
1711	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM Peter the Great is defeated by Turks at Stanilesti.			Cyril IV					1711
1712	Thomas Newcomen builds first commercially successful steam engine. Able to keep deep coal mines clear of water. First significant power source other than wind and water. the first public synagogue in inaugurated in Berlin								1712
1713				Cyprianus I					1713
1714	Treaty of Utrecht ends War of the Spanish succession, and reshapes the map of Europe. Spain loses half of Italy and the Spanish Netherlands to Austria			Cosmas III		House of Brunswick, Hanover Line George I			1714
1715							Louis XV		1715
1716				Jeremias III					1716
1717	Friendship treaty between France and Russia								1717
1721		243 Innocent XIII				Sir Robert Walpole Prime Minister, Whig			1721
1724		244 Benedict XIII							1724
1726				Paisius II					1726
1727	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM Newton dies Spanish lay siege to Gibraltar					George II			1727
1730		245 Clement XII							1730
1732				Jeremias III					1732
1733				Serapheim I					1733
1734	Spanish Inquisition ends			Neophytus VI					1734
1736	Israel Baal Shem Tov founds the Jewish Hasidism (sincere devotion over Talmudic erudition appreciation of God in nature)								1736
1739	Spain and England declare war								1739
1740	Frederick II becomes King of Prussia King Frederick the Great of Prussia invades Austrian Silesia supported by Bavaria, Saxony and Spain Maria Theresa ascends the throne of Austria	246 Benedict XIV		Paisius II					1740
1742						Earl of Wilmington Prime Minister, Whig			1742
1743				Neophytus VI		Henry Pelham Prime Minister, Whig			1743
1744	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM			Paisius II					1744
1746	Scots defeated by the English								1746
1748				Cyril V					1748
1752				Cyril V					1752
1754						Duke of Newcastle Prime Minister, Whig			1754
1756	1756-63: Seven Years' War: Russia, Austria, and France against most other countries in Europe (mainly Britain and Prussia)					Duke of Devonshire Prime Minister, Whig			1756
1757	British Empire in India			Callinicus III		Duke of Newcastle Prime Minister, Whig			1757
1758		247 Clement XIII							1758
1759	British capture Quebec from the French								1759
1760						George III			1760
1761	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM			Joannicius III					1761
1762	Catherine I becomes Czarina of Russia					Earl of Bute Prime Minister, ory			1762
1763				Samuel I Chatzeres		George Grenville Prime Minister, Whig			1763
1765	Steam Engine invented					Marquess of Rockingham Prime Minister, Whig			1765
1767						Duke of Grafton Prime Minister, Whig			1767
1768	Jews are massacred during riots in Russia-occupied Poland			Meletius II					1768
1769		248 Clement XIV		Theodosius II					1769
1770						Lord North Prime Minister, Tory			1770
1772	The Russians reach the Dniester for the first time in history. First Partition of Poland by Austria, Russia and Prussia								1772
1773	the Book of Henoch is rediscovered in Abyssinia			Samuel I Chatzeres					1773
1774	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM			Sophoronius II			Louis XVI		1774
1775	Watt's first efficient steam engine, much more efficient than the Newcomen. The Austrians buy a part of Moldova (Bucovina) rom Turkey.	249 Pius VI							1775
1776	American Revolution July 4, 1776								1776
1779	First steam powered mills. Crompton's "mule" combines Hargreaves' and Arkwright's machines, fully automating the weaving process.								1779
1780				Gabriel IV					1780
1782						Marquess of Rockingham Prime Minister, Whig			1782
1783						Duke of Portland Prime Minister, coalition			1783
1784	Russia amnnexes Crimea								1784
1785				Procopius I					1785
1786	British-French trade agreement								1786
1788	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM French Parlement (Spelled this way in French) lists greivances against Louis XVI								1788
1789	French Revolution July 14, 1789 George Washington is sworn in as the First President of the United States Mutiny on the HMS Bounty on its voyage back to England from Tahiti			Neophytus VII					1789
1791	Russia gains the Black Sea from the Turks								1791
1792	French monarchy abolished, Britain declares war on France Second Partition of Poland						First Republic National Convention		1792
1793	The War of the First Coalition (1793-97) The new pro-revolutionary France fought an alliance of Austria, Prussia, Great Britain, Spain, the Netherlands, and the Kingdom of Sardinia between 1793 and 1797. Great Britain led the alliance that's main purpose was to reestablish the monarchy in France. In 1796, Napoleon Bonaparte, a French General, led the French in northern Italy against the Austrians. Napoleon made major victories against the Austrians and in 1798 he led the French against Egypt as a prelude to invading British India. But Napoleon's campaign in Egypt was unsuccessful and he returned to France in 1799. Here, he overthrew the Directory and established the Consulate in which Napoleon was made the leader of France as the First Consul.								1793
1794				Gerasimus III					1794
1795	Third Partition of Poland, Polish indepenence shattered						Directory (Directors) Paul François Jean Nicolas de Barras Jean-François Reubell Louis Marie La Revellíere-Lépeaux Lazare Nicolas Marguerite Carnot Etienne Le Tourneur François Marquis de Barthélemy Philippe Antoine Merlin de Douai François de Neufchâteau Jean Baptiste Comte de Treilhard Emmanuel Joseph Comte de Sieyés Roger Comte de Ducos Jean François Auguste Moulins Louis Gohier		1795
1796	Napoleon defeats Austrians								1796
1797				Gregory V					1797
1798	United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland established with one parliament and one monarch Napoleon conquers Egypt and Rome Island of Malta surrenders to Napoleon The War of the Second Coalition (1798-1802) Napoleon's success against Austria in Italy had proven France's position in Europe. But while Napoleon was commanding the French in Egypt, a new alliance was formed called the Second Coalition. The alliance consisted of Russia, Great Britain, Austria, the Kingdom of Naples, Portugal, and the Ottoman Empire. Most of the war occurred in northern Italy and Switzerland. The Austrians and Russians, though, were very successful in Italy at the battles of Magnano (April 5, 1799), Cassano (April 27), Trebbia (June 19), and Novi (August 15). The coalition also occupied Milan and Turin, which destroyed previous French gains in the area. But the French were better off in Switzerland. After being defeated at Zurich (June 7) by the Austrians, the French defeated the Russians and on October 22 withdrew from the Second Coalition due to alleged lack of cooperation by the Austrians. When Napoleon returned to France and became the First Consul, he attempted to make peace with the allies. But they refused, and Napoleon planned a series of moves against the Austrians and its German allies for the spring of 1800. On June 14, a French force of 40,000 men under Napoleon defeated the Austrians at the Battle of Marengo. At the same time, another French force crossed the Rhine and captured Munich. On December 3, this force defeated the Austrians at the Battle of Hohenlinden and advanced towards the city of Linz, in Austria. On February 9, 1801, the French forced the Austrians to capitulate at the treaty of Luneville. The Germans ceded the left bank of the Rhine and recognized the French-influenced republics in northern Italy. The treaty also marked the end of the Second Coalition. On March 27, 1802, the British signed the Treaty of Amiens with France, thus completely ending the Second Coalition. But the treaty was short lasting and in 1803, France and Britain were again at war. The reason was the island of Malta. The French, assured by the Treaty of Amiens, were supposed to have had Malta returned to them. The British did not surrender the island, and war broke out again. Napoleon sold Louisiana to the United States and he was no longer able to make a vast colonial empire that he desired. Austria, Russia and Sweden joined Britain in 1805 and Spain joined France.			Neophytus VII					1798
1799	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM Napoleon takes over the French government as First Consul Roman Republic						Consulate 1st Consul: 1799 - 1804 Napoleon Bonaparte 2nd Consul: 1799 Emmanuel Joseph Comte de Sieyés, 1799 - 1804 Jean-Jacques Régis Cambacérès 3rd Consul: 1799 - 1799 Pierre-Roger Ducos 1799 - 1804 Charles François Lebrun		1799
1800		250 Pius VII							1800
1801	Austria makes a temporary peace with France Vatican Concordat with Napoleon			Callinicus IV		Henry Addington Prime Minister, Tory			1801
1803	US purchases Louisiana from France for $15 million The War of the Third Coalition (1803-05) Napoleon quickly moved against the Second Coalition. He exerted pressure since 1798 on Britain by keeping an army at Boulogne on the English Channel, preparing for an invasion of England. But after the formation of the new coalition against France, he moved the large force at Boulogne to meet the Austrians under Ferdinand III, who had invaded Bavaria. Some German states allied themselves with France such as Bavaria and Wurttemburg. Napoleon defeated Austria at Ulm and then moved on to capture Vienna. Alexander I sent an army to help the Austrians, but Napoleon crushed the combined Austro-Russian army at the Battle of Austerlitz also known as the Battle of the Three Emperors. Austria again capitulated on December 26, 1805 at the Treat of Pressburg. By the terms of this treaty, Austria gave France more territory in northern Italy, gave Bavaria more territory in Austria itself and recognized Wurttemburg and Baden as kingdoms. He also stripped Ferdinand of the title of Holy Roman Emperor, ending the empire. The Confederation of the Rhine Napoleon ended the Holy Roman Empire in 1805, and Austria attempted to regain it by forming the Austrian Empire. But France took the initiative and established the Confederation of the Rhine, which eventually consisted of all the German states except for Austria, Prussia, Brunswick and Hessen. Napoleon had already begun to take control of other places though. Joseph Bonaparte became King of Naples in 1806. Louis Bonaparte became King of Holland (former Batavian republic) that same year, and on June 12 he formed the Confederation of the Rhine. His success in uniting the continent was checked, or at least offset when the British, under Nelson, defeated the French and Spanish combined fleets at Trafalgar on October 21, 1805. This victory made Britain the master of the seas throughout the rest of the war. In 1806, since Napoleon could not defeat the British at sea, he initiated economic warfare. He formed the Continental System, which did not allow any continental ports to open their doors to British trade. Britain countered this by making the Orders of Council, which forbade any neutral ship from trading in any ports between ports of nations obeying Napoleon. British control over the sea troubled the Continental System and eventually made it fail								1803
1804	Haiti declares independence, others follow to breakdown the French colonial system					William Pitt the Younger Prime Minister, Tory	First Empire (emperors) Napoleon I		1804
1805	Napoleon's French army wins the the battle of Austerlitz								1805
1806	Holy Roman Empire ends with the abdictation of Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand The War of the Fourth Coalition (1806-08) Napoleon continued his influence in Europe before the British began to exploit its control over the seas. Prussia in 1806, concerned about Napoleon's power mainly in Germany, joined a new fourth coalition composed of Great Britain, Russia and Sweden. The Prussians were severely defeated at Jena on October 14, 1806 and Napoleon captured Berlin. He then moved on to defeat the Russians at Friedland and forced Alexander I to make peace. By the Treaty of Tilsit, Russia lost Poland to France and became Napoleon's ally, and Prussia was reduced to a third-rate power due to half of its territory being taken away. Napoleon then moved against Sweden with the support of Russia and Denmark. Sweden was defeated and King Gustav IV Adolph was forced to abdicate in favour of his uncle, Charles XIII. The heir to Sweden after him would be one of Napoleon's Marshals, General Jean Baptiste Jules Bernadotte, who became King of Sweden in 1818. By 1808, Napoleon was master of all of Europe except for Russia and Great Britain. Nationalistic feelings in some of Napoleon's territories began to weaken Napoleon's power. This coupled with Britain's persistence in opposition to France. The first nationalistic uprisings were in Spain in 1808. After dethroning Charles IV, Napoleon but his brother Joseph Bonaparte on the Spanish throne. The Spanish revolted and drove Joseph out of Madrid. The Peninsular War in Spain had thus begun. The British under Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington, aided the Spaniards in their violent struggle. This struggle severely handicapped Napoleon in his later conflicts in further Eastern Europe. The first enemy after domination of Europe by Napoleon was Austria. Now Austria joined the Fifth Coalition with Great Britain in 1809. Napoleon again defeated Austria at Wagram in July, and forced them to sign the Treaty of Vienna, and Austria lost territory such as Salzburg, Galicia and large portions of its territory in southern Europe. Napoleon then married the daughter of Francis II of Austria in hope of keeping Austria out of newer coalitions.			Gregory V		Lord Grenville Prime Minister, coalition			1806
1807	Robert Fulton's Clermont first successful steamboat. Portugese government temporarily moves to Rio de Janeiro in Brazil					Duke of Portland Prime Minister, Tory			1807
1808	France extends to Rome and Spain, British support Spanish guerillas			Callinicus IV					1808
1809	1809-1814: Annexation by France,Napoleon excommunicated, Pope arrested			Jeremias IV		Spencer Perceval Prime Minister, Tory			1809
1812	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM Napoleon leads unsuccessful invasion of Russia Napoleon's Army retreats from Russia The Downfall of Napoleon In 1812, Napoleon's turning point in his career had come. War again broke out between France and Russia because Alexander refused to accept the Continental System. This is where the "Spanish Ulcer" became a serious problem. With one army occupied in Spain, he went to Russia with 500,000 men. He defeated the Russians at Borodino and took Moscow on September 14, 1812. But the Russians had burned the city making it impossible for Napoleon's forces to take shelter in the cold upcoming winter. The French retreated to Germany, on the way losing most of their men. Russia then joined the Fifth Coalition, consisting of Great Britain, Prussia, and Sweden. Prussia, pressured by patriotism in its country due to reforms, opened the War of Liberation against Napoleon. Napoleon then defeated the Prussians at Lutzen and Bautzen. He then won his last major victory at the Battle of Dresden on August 27, 1813 where 100,000 French won against a combined force of Prussian, Austrian, and Russian forces numbering 150,000. But the following October, the Battle of Leipzig forced Napoleon to retreat across the Rhine, thus freeing Germany. The next year, in 1814, the Austrians, Russians, and Prussians invaded northern France. In March 1814, they took Paris. Napoleon was forced to abdicate and he went into exile at Elba. The Congress of Vienna Napoleon escaped Elba in March 1815 and initiated the Hundred Days'. He made a campaign into Belgium and on June 18, 1815, Napoleon was again defeated at the Battle of Waterloo and was forced to abdicate for the last time to Saint Helena until his death in 1821. The Congress of Vienna took place between September 1814 to June 1815. Representatives from every European country except Turkey attended the Congress. The most prominent were Russia, Austria, Great Britain, and Prussia. First, the Congress deprived France of all territory conquered by Napoleon after the Revolution. It united the Dutch Republic and the Austrian Netherlands under the House of Orange and united Norway and Sweden under Charles XIV John of Sweden. It also recognized the independence of Switzerland. Russia received a New Kingdom of Poland with Alexander as King; Prussia received West Prussia, Posen, half of Saxony, northern Saxony, and other provinces; Hannover became a Kingdom and received more territory; Austria regained almost all of its territory lost to Napoleon and was compensated for its loss of the Netherlands by more territory in Italy. The German Confederation was formed after the Frankfurt Assembly under the "presidency" of Austria. This united almost 40 sovereign states in Germany, including Prussia. The Congress almost destroyed the Slave Trade, and kept Europe at peace for almost 40 years. The Russians annex the Easter part of Moldova (Basarabia).					Earl of Liverpool Prime Minister, Tory			1812
1813				Cyril VI					1813
1814	French defeated by the allies (Britain, Austria, Russia, Prussia, Sweden and Portugal) US and Britain sign peace treaty at Ghent, Belgium						Louis XVIII (king) Bourbons (restored) Louis XVIII		1814
1815	Napoleon is defeated by Wellington at Waterloo The restorations of 1815 returned the Papal Italian territories, until the period of the unificaiton of Italy, 1859-1870.						Napoleon I (2nd time)		1815
1818				Gregory V					1818
1820						George IV			1820
1821	Greek Revolution March 25, 1821-1829			Eugenius II					1821
1822				Anthimus III					1822
1823		251 Leo XII							1823
1824	Charles X of France fails in an attempt to restore absolute Monarchy in France			Chrysanthos I			Charles X		1824
1826	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM			Agathangelos I					1826
1827						George Canning Prime Minister, coalition			1827
1828	Russia declares war on Turkeyin aid of the Greek Revolution, Greece also aided by Britain and France					Duke of Wellington Prime Minister, Tory			1828
1829	Turks recognize Greek independence Polish revolt against Russia fails	252 Pius VIII							1829
1830	Manchester-Liverpool railway begins first regular commercial rail service. French invade Algeria			Constantios I		Earl Grey Prime Minister, Tory	Orleans Louis Philippe		1830
1831	Faraday discovers electro-magnetic current, making possible generators and electric engines. Belgium seperates from the Netherlands	253 Gregory XVI							1831
1833	Slavery abolished in the British Empire The Church of Greece declares its autonomy from the Patriarchate at Constantinople, as an "autocephalic" church.								1833
1834	Charles Babbage develops his analytic engine--the forerunner of the computer. Fox Talbot produces photographs. Spanish Inquisition officially ends			Constantios II		Viscount Melbourne Prime Minister, Whig			1834
1835				Gregory VI		Viscount Melbourne Prime Minister, Whig			1835
1837	Victoria becomes Queen of Great Britain Morse develops the telegraph and Morse Code. Great Western-: First ocean-going steamship.					Victoria			1837
1838	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM Daguerre perfects the Daguerrotype.								1838
1839	1839-1842: First Opium War between Britain and China over drug importation Fox Talbot introduces photographic paper.								1839
1840	Lower and Upper Canada united			Anthimus IV					1840
1841				Anthimus V		Sir Robert Peel Prime Minister, Conservative			1841
1842				Germanus IV					1842
1843	Great Britain: First large, iron, screw-propelled steamship.								1843
1844	Commercial use of Morse's telegraph (Baltimore to Washington). Chinese ports open to US ships								1844
1845				Meletius III					1845
1846	1846-1848: US at war with Mexico Pneumatic tire patented	254 Pius IX				Lord Russell Prime Minister, Liberal			1846
1848	Second Republic founded in France by Napoleon III			Anthimus IV			Second Republic (presidents) Louis Eugéne Cavaignac Louis Napoleon (later Napoleon III)		1848
1849	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM Monier develops reinforced concrete.								1849
1851	Singer invents first practical sewing machine.								1851
1852	Napoleon III becomes Emperor of France			Germanus IV		Earl of Derby Prime Minister, Conservative	Second Empire (emperors) (Louis) Napoleon III		1852
1853	1853-56: Crimean War begins as Turkey declares war on Russia			Anthimus VI					1853
1854	Britain and France join the Turks against Russia								1854
1855				Cyril VII		Viscount Palmerston Prime Minister, Liberal			1855
1856	Russia defeated by British, French and Turks								1856
1857	Pasteur experiments with fermentation. Sepoy rebellion in India								1857
1858	First Trans-Atlantic Cable completed Cathode rays discovered.					Earl of Derby Prime Minister, Conservative			1858
1859	1859-1870. The political independence of the Papacy formally ended. Loss of Romagna.					Viscount Palmerston Prime Minister, Liberal			1859
1860	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM American Civil War 1860-1865 Loss of the Marches & Umbria.			Joachim II					1860
1861	US Civil War begins Independant Kingdom of Italy proclaimed								1861
1862	Prussia grows under Otto von Bismarck								1862
1863	Poland revolts against Russia French capture Mexico City			Sophronios III					1863
1865	Napoleon III and Bismarck meet at Biarritz, France					Lord Russell Prime Minister, Liberal			1865
1866	Austria defeated by Prussia and Italy Dominion of Canada founded					Earl of Derby Prime Minister, Conservative			1866
1867	Karl Marx writes and publishes the Capital Alfred Nobel produces dynamite, the first high explosive which can be safely handled. Austria-Hungary dual-monarchy established								1867
1868	Revolution in Spain					Benjamin Disraeli Prime Minister, Conservative			1868
1869	Suez Canal opened								1869
1870	1870-71: Franco-Prussian War, French surrendurs Alsace-Lorraine to the new German Empire(former Prussia)						Third Republic (presidents) Louis Jules Trochu (provisional)		1870
1871	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM Prussian dominated German Empire founded with Bismarck as Chancellor			Anthimus VI			Adolphe Thiers		1871
1873	Christopher Sholes invents the Remington typewriter. Clerk Maxwell states the laws of electro-magnetic radiation Economic crisis in Europe			Joachim II			Patrice de MacMahon		1873
1874						Benjamin Disraeli Prime Minister, Conservative			1874
1876	Bell invents the telephone.								1876
1877	1877-1878: Russo-Turkish War: Turkish power in Europe broken after the Congress of Berlin Edison invents the phonograph.								1877
1878	Pius IX dies after 32 years of pontificate (the longest ever)	255 Leo XIII		Joachim III					1878
1879	Edison invents the incandescent lamp. Albert Einstein was born on March 14, 1879 in Wurtemburg, Germany. In 1895, Einstein attempted to enroll at Eidgenossische Technishe Hockshule (ETH), a technical university in Zurich, to study Electrical Engineering, but failed the entrance examination. In 1896, he renounced his German citizenship and did not officially become even a prospective citizen of another country until 1899 when he applied for citizenship in Switzerland. Einstein eventually attended ETH became a teacher in 1900. In 1905, Einstein received his doctorate from ETH for a discovery in the determination of molecular dimensions. In this year, he also wrote three papers about his discoveries in quantum theory and relativity. In 1921, Einstein received a Nobel Prize for his 1905 work on photoelectric effects. For his accomplishments, Einstein began receiving international attention. He returned to Germany in 1914 to accept a research position at the Prussian Academy of Sciences and a chair position at the University of Berlin. He also began traveling to the United States and on his third visit in 1932, he was offered and accepted a job at Princeton University. He became a US citizen in 1940. In 1939, at the urging of Dr. Leo Szilard, Einstein wrote to President Roosevelt warning of a new discovery of a "nuclear chain reaction in a large mass of uranium." Einstein forewarned President Roosevelt that the discovery of such a reaction could lead to the construction of "extremely powerful bombs of a new type." Einstein also mentioned that Dr. Leo Szilard was working on this and urged the US to find this reaction before Germany. It was Einstein's letter that led President Roosevelt to funding uranium research and later to the Manhattan Project. Einstein died on April 18, 1955 of heart failure. On July 9, 1955, he and Bertrand Russell issued a Manifesto. The Russell-Einstein Manifesto warned of the peril of nuclear weapons and the dangers of continuing an arms race and called upon scientists to discuss a resolution.						Jules Grévy		1879
1880						W E Gladstone Prime Minister, Liberal			1880
1881	May 10 1881 - Proclamation of the Kingdom of Romania. a wave of anti-Jewish pogroms in Russia causes mass migrations of Jews (2.5 million Jews settle in the United States thousands settle in Palestine)								1881
1882	Britain conquers Egypt Germany, Austria and Italy forms the Triple Alliance in fear of Russian conquests, it will eventually lead to World War I								1882
1883	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM First skyscraper (ten stories) in Chicago. The Brooklyn Bridge opens. This large suspension bridge, built by the Roeblings (father and son), is a triumph of engineering.								1883
1884	Maxim invents the machine gun, making possible mass slaughter and beginning the mechanization of warfare.			Joachim IV					1884
1885	Benz develops first automobile to run on internal- combustion engine.					Marquess of Salisbury Prime Minister, Conservative			1885
1886	Statue of Liberty dedicated					W E Gladstone Prime Minister, Liberal			1886
1887				Dionysios V			Sadi Carnot		1887
1888	Hertz produces radio waves.								1888
1889	Eiffel Tower. Second (Socialist) International formed in Paris								1889
1891				Neophytos VIII					1891
1892	Rudolf Diesel invents his namesake.					W E Gladstone Prime Minister, Liberal			1892
1894						Earl of Rosebery Prime Minister, Liberal	Jean Casimir-Périer		1894
1895	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM Lumiere brothers develop Cinematograph. Roentgen discovers X-rays.			Anthimus VII		Marquess of Salisbury Prime Minister, Conservative	Félix Faure		1895
1896	Marconi patents wireless telegraph.								1896
1897	Joseph Thomson discovers particles smaller than atoms. Jews of Palestine led by Theodor Herzl at Basel (Switzerland) call for the creation of a Jewish homeland in Palestine (first Zionist Congress			Constantine V					1897
1898	Spanish-American War U.S. President McKinley is shot, succeeded by Theodore Roosevelt								1898
1899	Aspirin invented.						Emile Loubet		1899
1900	First Zeppelin built								1900
1901	Marconi transmits first trans-Atlantic radio message (from Cape Cod). Queen Victoria dies			Joachim III		House of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha Edward VII			1901
1902						Arthur James Balfour Prime Minister, Conservative			1902
1903	Wright brothers make first powered flight. Kitty Hawk, North Carolina.	256 St. Pius X							1903
1904	Russo-Japanese War, competition for Korea and Manchuria: Japanese defeat Russians, Europe startled General strikes and riots in Russia, first workers' soviet set up in St.Petersburg								1904
1905	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM Albert Einstein (1879-1955)publishes a paper on his Theory of Relativity Norway becomes independent from Sweden					Sir H Campbell-Bannerman Prime Minister, Liberal			1905
1906							Armand Fallières		1906
1907	Second Hague Peace Conference with 46 nations adopts 10 conventions on rules of war								1907
1908	Henry Ford mass-produces the Model T. Inquisition becomes Holy Office					H H Asquith Prime Minister, Liberal			1908
1909	Tel Aviv is founded as a Hebrew speaking Jewish city								1909
1910						House of Windsor George V			1910
1911	Italian-Turkish War, first use of aircraft as an offensive weapon General strikes and riots in Russia, first workers' soviet set up in St.Petersburg Chinese Republic overthrows Manchu dynasty								1911
1912	April 12: Titanic sinks on maiden voyage 1912-13: Balkan Wars: Turks defeated twice by Balkan alliances, forced to give up more land								1912
1913				Germanus V			Raymond Poincaré		1913
1914	World War I begins: The Great War	257 Benedict XV							1914
1915	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM					H H Asquith Prime Minister, coalition			1915
1916						David Lloyd George Prime Minister, coalition			1916
1917	Soviet Revolution British officer T. E. Lawrence plays instrumental role in uniting bedwin tribes of Arabia in guerilla warfare against the Turkish army, starting with a decisive victory against the Red Sea port of Akaba. Turkey was aligned with germany durng World War I. T. E. Lawrence becomes known as Lawrence of Arabia. Three shepherd children see the Virgin Mary in Fatima Portugal								1917
1918				[Vacant,]					1918
1919	World War I ends: Peace Treaty signed by German delegates and Allies in Versailles. US, British and French troops leave Russia League of Nations formed								1919
1920	First League of Nations meeting in Geneva, Switzerland Heyday of the silent movies						Paul Deschanel Alexandre Millerand		1920
1921	US Congress formally ends WWI German inflation begins Irish Free State formed			Meletius IV Metaxakis					1921
1922	USSR formed by the Bolsheviks Mussolini forms fascist government in Italy	258 Pius XI				Andrew Bonar Law Prime Minister, Conservative			1922
1923	French and Belgian troops take the Ruhr to force reparation payments			Gregory VII		Stanley Baldwin Prime Minister, Conservative			1923
1924	Death of Lenin: Stalin wins power struggle in Russia			Constantine VI		Ramsay MacDonald Prime Minister, Labour	Gaston Doumergue		1924
1925	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM			Basil III					1925
1926	General Strike in Britain Socialist riot in Vienna								1926
1927	Charles Lindburgh flies solo across the Atlantic from Long Island to Le Bourget, paris on the single-engine Spirit of St Louis German economy collapses								1927
1928	Kellogg-Briand Pact, outlawing war, signed by 65 nations World economic crisis								1928
1929	First phase of the Great Depression Concordat with Mussolini, Independence of Vatican City			Photius II		Ramsey MacDonald Prime Minister, Labour			1929
1930	Britain, US, France, Japan, and Italy sign the naval disarmament treaty Nazi's first appear German elections								1930
1931	King Alfonso XIII overthrown, Spain becomes a republic Mukden Incident in Japanese occupied Manchuria					Ramsey MacDonald Prime Minister, national coalition	Paul Doumer		1931
1932	Iraq becomes independent Nazi's lead German elections						Albert Lebrun		1932
1933	Hitler made German Chancellor - obtains dictatorial powers First concentration camps opened by the Nazis Japan and Germany withdraw from the League of Nations								1933
1934	Austrian Chancellor Dollfuss assassinated by the Nazis								1934
1935	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM Mussolini invades Ethiopia					Stanley Baldwin Prime Minister, national coalition			1935
1936	Germans occupy the Rhine Spanish civil war begins War between China and Japan begins Japan and Germany sign the Anti-Cominterim treaty, Italy joins the Axis in 1937			Benjamin I		Edward VIII			1936
1937	Hitler continues to increase German military power					Neville Chamberlain Prime Minister, national coalition			1937
1938	Austria occupied by Nazis Munich Pact allows Nazis to take Czechslovakia								1938
1939	World War II begins Poland, France invaded Battle of Britain Two definitive motion pictures are released: Citizen Kane, and Gone With The Wind	259 Pius XII							1939
1940	October 28: Greece invaded by Mussolini's Italian army. Italians are pushed back through Albania. Hitler opens a second front against Greece in March 1941 in aid of Mussolini. Greek army overrun at the Rhodopi mountains fortifications, border with Bulgaria, in April, allowed to leave fortifications without surrendering their arms.					Sir Winston Churchill Prime Minister, coalition	Vichy Government (Chief of State) Henri Philippe Petain		1940
1941	Greece overrun, Russia invaded The Empire of Japan attacks the U.S. Fleet at Pearl Harbour without having delivered a Declaration of War. The declaration of War came one hour after the 8 AM attack because the Japanese Embassy in Washington DC took longer than expected to translate the message from the Japanese government to the government of the United States. After the success of the devastating attack admiral Yamamoto said ³I fear all we have succeeded in doing is awaken a sleeping giant and fill him with resolve². Hitler envisions a "final solution" for the Jews and extermination camps are set up ("Holocaust") that will eliminate six million Jews								1941
1942	The U.S. Lands forces in North Africa, German forces are driven to Italy Manhattan project lead by Dr Robert Openheimer (1904 - 1967) to create the first atom bomb. Albert Einstein, seen here with Oppenheimer, has said he does not know about the Third World War, but the Fourh will be fought with sticks and stones.								1942
1943	Italy invaded by allied forces in Sicilly, then at Angio								1943
1944	The Allies invade Normandy						Provisional Government (presidents) Charles de Gaulle		1944
1945	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM End of World War II Germany surrenders The U.S. drops first nuclear devices on Hiroshima and Nagasaki Nuclear Age begins a library of early Christian texts is discovered at Nag Hammadi in Egypt					Clement Attlee Prime Minister, Labour			1945
1946	UN established by leading world nations Jan 10: First meeting of the UN General Assembly in London April: League of Nations dissolved June: Italy abolishes monarchy Jan 1: UK nationalizes its coal mines Feb 10: Peace treaties for Italy, Romania, Hungary, Bulgaria and Finland signed in Paris Feb 23-25: Burma and Ceylon granted independence from Britain April 30: Israel proclaimed a nation May 14: Berlin airlift beginsMay 14: Berlin airlift beginsMay 14: Berlin airlift begins June 28: Republic of Korea founded by the UN 1946-1949: Civil war in Greece between royalists backed by the West and Communist guerila forces backed by the Soviet block.			Maximus V			Félix Gouin Georges Bidault Leon Blum		1946
1947	October 14: Chuck Yeager breaks the Sound Barrier in the X1 experimental plane named Glamorous Glynnis, after his wife. the Dead Sea Scrolls are discovered near Qumran in caves on the hills by the northwestern shores of the Dead Sea.						Fourth Republic (presidents) Vincent Auriol		1947
1948	At midnight on May 14, 1948, the Provisional Government of Israel proclaimed the new State of Israel. On that same date the United States, in the person of President Truman, recognized the provisional Jewish government as de facto authority of the new Jewish state (de jure recognition was extended on January 31). The U.S. delegates to the U.N. and top ranking State Department officials were angered that Truman released his recognition statement to the press without notifying them first. On May 15, 1948, the Arab states issued their response statement and Arab armies invaded Israel and the first Arab-Israeli war began. Mahatma Gandhi Assasinated the Jewish state of Israel is founded in Palestine			Athenagoras					1948
1949	Jan 7: Cease-fire in Palestine Jan 31: Truman orders development of the hydrogen bomb Feb 24: Israel signs armistice with Egypt April 4: NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organisation) signed by 12 nations to counter Soviet aggression June 25: Start of the Korean War (See Korean War) Sept 21: German Federal Republic (West Germany) established Sept 23: Soviets test atomic bomb Oct 1: Communist Peoples' Republic of China formally proclaimed by Mao Zedong								1949
1950	1950-1953 Korean War 1950-1975 Vietnam War								1950
1951	March 19: Six European nations agree on Schuman plan for a Steel and Coal pool, it will eventually lead to the European Union Sept 8: Japanese peace treaty signed by 49 nations					Sir Winston Churchill Prime Minister, Conservative			1951
1952	Feb 6: George VI dies, Elizabeth II named Queen of England February: NATO approves the European army November: AEC (Atomic Energy Commission) announces satisfactory hydrogen weapons testing in the US Ernest hemingway publishes The Old Man and the Sea wins Pulitzer Prize for Fiction 1953					Elizabeth II			1952
1953	Jan 20:General Dwight D. Eisenhower is inaugurated as US President Feb 10: European Coal and Steel Plan goes into effect March 5: Soviet Premier Joseph Stalin dies March 6: Malenkov becomes the Soviet Premier June 17: East Berliners rebel against Communism but are suppressed by Soviet forces June 18: Egypt becomes a republic ruled by a military junta July 27: Korean armistice signed Aug 20: Moscow announces the explosion of the Hydrogen bomb								1953
1954	Jan 21 Nautilus, the First nuclear-powered submarine launched by the U.S						René Coty		1954
1955	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM					Sir Anthony Eden Prime Minister, Conservative			1955
1956	Heyday of the I Love Lucy popular TV show								1956
1957						Harold Macmillan Prime Minister, Conservative			1957
1958	1958-1963 The Mercury Program Fidel Castro assumes power in Cuba during the last hours of 1958, nistalls communist government and aligns with Moscow and the U.S.S.R. Castro will survive 10 U.S. Presidencies.	260 John XXIII							1958
1959	Sputnik, first artificial satelite circles the Earth						Fifth Republic (presidents) Charles de Gaulle		1959
1960	1960-1963: U.S. military advisers in South Vietnam rise from 900 to 15,000								1960
1961	Failed invasion of Cuba by the U.S. at the Bay of Pigs April 12, 1961 Yuri Gagarin is the first person to orbit the Earth								1961
1962	1962-1966 The Gemini Program Cuba missile crisis stand-off between the U.S.A. and the U.S.S.R.								1962
1963	John F. Kennedy assasinated Presiden Lyndon B. Johnson increases U.S. commitment in Vietnam	261 Paul VI				Sir Alec Douglas-Home Prime Minister, Conservative			1963
1964						Harold Wilson Prime Minister, Labour			1964
1965	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM Pope Paul VI and Patriarch Athenagoras I of Constantinople mutually nullify the excommunications of 1054.								1965
1966	Vatican abolishes Index of Forbidden Books								1966
1967	The Seven-Day War between Israel, Egypt and Syria ends with Israeli victory. April 21: U.S.-backed junta of 3 Colonels overthrows Greek government and takes power in Greece November: King Constantine of Greece flees and eventually settles in London. Greek monarchy is served by a military viceroy appointed by the ruling junta and is eventually abolished through a referrendum after the fall of the junta and restoration of democracy in 1974 1967-1972 The Apollo Program (Lunar) The Beatles record Seargent Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band								1967
1968	Robert F. Kennedy assasinated Martin Luther King assasinated Chicago riots Summer of Love Student uprising in Paris Richard Nixon is elected President of the U.S.								1968
1969	First Men on the Moon: Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin land their lunar vehicle ³Eagle² at the Sea of tranquility.						Georges Pompidou		1969
1970	Commercial services begin for the Boeing 747-100, the world's largest passenger jet airliner.					Edward Heath Prime Minister, Conservative			1970
1971	1971-1991 Salyut Space Stations								1971
1972	The Watergate scandal slowly errupts in the pages of The Washington Post Israeli athetes are assasinated during the Olympic games at Munich			Demetrius					1972
1973	November 17: Student uprising in the Polytechnic at Athens is crushed by the military Junta. A transfer of power occurs within the ranks of the junta which leads to the unsuccessful coup in Cyprus in July 1974. 1973-1974 Skylab								1973
1974	Nixon resigns U.S. Presidency as a result of the Watergate scandal Turkey invades Cyprus; divides the island into Greek and Turkish sectors, supports Turkish Cypriot State which is not recognised by any other nations. Greek Junta falls after unsuccessful coup in Cyprus which precipitated the Turkish invasion. Greek statesman Konstantin Karamanlis returns to Athens from self-exile in Paris to assume the leadership of transition into democracy. Karamanlis is given the personal jet of the French President to fly to Athens. France acts as protector of the transitional period and helps avert a war between Greece and Turkey when the French fleet positions itself between the Turkish fleet and Greek islands: France declares that any shots fired by any nation over the position of the French fleet will be considered an act of war against France. The transitional period ends with the restoration of Democracy in Greece and the occupation of the northern part of Cyprus by the Turkish-backed Turkish Cyriot government.					Harold Wilson Prime Minister, Labour	Valery Giscard d'Estaing		1974
1975	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM End of War in Vietnam 12:12pm (EDT) July 17, 1974. Apollo-Soyuz rendezvous in space Both craft were launched on July 15, 1975. The crews exchanged commemorative flags and other gifts on live television.								1975
1976	Viking 1 lands on Mars on June the 20th 1976					James Callaghan Prime Minister, Labour			1976
1978	The name "John," shunned for centuries, has now been born by three of the last four Popes. This was all due to the saintliness and magnanimity of John XXIII. John Paul I wished to honor John and his successor, Paul VI, and then John Paul II wished to honor all three of them. John Paul I's brief reign moved the Cardinals to elect a relatively young and vigorous Pope. John Paul II has now, indeed, reigned into the new Millennium. He was also the first non-Italian Pope in centuries, and the first Polish Pope ever. It has been a historic reign indeed, with John Paul playing a large part in the Fall of Communism, but he has lately grown gravely frail and ill. Apple Computer is born. John Paul II is the first non-Italian Pope in centuries (and the first Pole ever	262 John Paul I 263 John Paul II							1978
1979	Iranian extremists overrun the U.S. Embassy in Tehran; take American hostages who are released in January 1981 Apple launches the AppleII					Margaret Thatcher Prime Minister, Conservative			1979
1980	1980-1988: Presidency of Ronald Reagan "We are what happens to Hydrogen atoms given fifteen billion years of evolution." Some 3.6 million years ago, in what is now northern Tanzania, a volcano errupted, the resulting cloud of ash covering the surrounding savannahs. In 1979, the paleoanthropologist Mary Leaky found in that ash footprints --the footprints, she believes, of an early humanoid, perhaps an ancestor of all the people on the Earth today. And 380,000 kilometers away, in a flat dry plain that humans have in a moment of optimism called the Sea of Tranquility, there is another footprint, left by the first human to walk another world. We have come far in 3.6 million years, and in 4.6 billion and in 15 billion. For we are the local embodiment of a Cosmos grown to self-awareness. We have begun to contemplate our origins: starstuff pondering the stars; organized assemblages of ten billion billion billion atoms considering the evolution of atoms; tracing the long journey by which, here at least, consciousness arose. Our loyalties are to the species and the planet. We speak for Earth. Our obligation to survive is owed not just to ourselves but also to that Cosmos, ancient and vast, from which we spring. ......Carl Sagan ......Cosmos Read Carl Sagan's Baloney Detection Kit!								1980
1981	Space Shuttle program begins a Bulgarian tries to kill the Pope						Francois Mitterand		1981
1983	Pioneer 10 on June the 13th 1983 becomes the first manmade object ever to leave the solar system								1983
1984	Apple releases the Macintosh Operating System. The Personal Computer revolution is launced								1984
1985	the first World Youth Day is held in Rome when Pope John Paul II invites Catholic and Buddhist youth from all over the world to pray with him								1985
1986	The Space Shuttle Challenger explodes 73 seconds after lift off, killing all crew including Teacher in Space Krista McAuliffe 1986-2000: Mir Space Station								1986
1987	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM Microsoft releases an improved Windows Operating System based on Apple's Macintosh A court battle ensues between Apple and Microsoft, with Apple alleging that Microsoft stole Macintosh operating system industrial secrets in order to develop their Windows system								1987
1988	"...if we discover a complete theory [unifying relativity and quantum mechanics (ed.)] it should in time be understandable in broad principle by everyone, not just a few scientists. Then we shall all, philosophers, scientists, and just ordinary people, be able to take part in the discussion of the question of why it is that we and the universe exist. If we find the answer to that, it would be the ultimate triumph of human reason --for then we would know the mind of God." ......Stephen Hawking ......A Brief History of Time								1988
1990	Fall of the U.S.S.R. The end of Communism in Eastern Europe allows the Orthodox churches to re-emerge. The Gulf War Iraq invades and occupies Kuwait. The U.S. lead a coalition against Iraq. Based in Saudi Arabia the coalition invades Kuwait and drives the Iraqi army back into Iraq. Instiogates no fly zone and ongoing U.N. arms inspections.					John Major Prime Minister, Conservative			1990
1991				Bartholomew					1991
1993	New South African Constitution puts end to apartheid								1993
1994	Last episode aired of futuristic, utopian, popular entertainment series: Star Trek, The Next Generation								1994
1995	Microsoft Launches Windows 95, the closest look and feel to the Macintosh system yet.						Jacques Chirac		1995
1997						Tony Blair Prime Minister, Labour			1997
1998	20 November, 1998 - The FGB, Zarya, the first component of the International Space Station is launched on a Proton rocket from Kazakhstan. Microsoft Launches Windows 98, with improved performance and a closer look and feel to the Macintosh system.								1998
2000	The Mir space station burns-up on re-entry November 2000 - First crew to arrive at the International Space Station Apple launches Operating System X Microsoft Launches Windows 2000, to be folowed by Windows XP								2000
2001	JUMP TO TOP \| MIDDLE \| BOTTOM Onset of Era of Terrorism: Destruction of the World Trade Center, New York. Four Commercial air liners are hijacked; two are crashed into the twin towers of the World Trade Center one at the Pentagon in Washington DC, and one crashes in a field in Pensylvania after passengers attempt to thwart the hijackers on September 11. War on Terrorism The U.S. declares far reaching and long range war against international terrorism, specifying the Al Queda network as responsible for the attack against the World Trade Center and the pentagon Air attacks against Afganistan, followed by invasion with land forces ousts ruling Taliban party and instigates a western-style democratic government.								2001
2003	War by the United States and the United Kingdom against Iraq: After an ultimatum by the United States for Iraqi President Saddam Hussein to leave power and go into self exile expires, the United States, with the political and military support of the united Kingdom, and against the wishes of United Nations veto-weilding member states, invade Iraq, oust Saddam Hussein and instigate the process of establishing a western-style democracy on the grounds that the ousted regime possessed Weapons of Mass Destruction and was willing to use them as terrorist or first strike weapons. After exhaustive searches by United States and United Kingdom forces no conclusive proof is found of the present or past existence of Weapons of Mass Destruction in Iraq. Deposed Iraqi leader Sadam Hussein is captured December 13.								2003
2004	January: President of the United States, George W. Bush, announces plans to return to the Moon with a semi-permanent colony and venture to Mars with manned missions by the year 2020.								2004
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Carl Sagan's Baloney Detection Kit

Wherever possible there must be independent confirmation of the facts.

Encourage substantive debate on the evidence by knowledgeable proponents of all points of view.

Arguments from authority carry little weight (in science there are no "authorities").

Spin more than one hypothesis - don't simply run with the first idea that caught your fancy.

Try not to get overly attached to a hypothesis just because it's yours.

Quantify, wherever possible.

If there is a chain of argument every link in the chain must work.

Occam's razor - if there are two hypothesis that explain the data equally well choose the simpler.

Ask whether the hypothesis can, at least in principle, be falsified (shown to be false by some unambiguous test). In other words, it is testable? Can others duplicate the experiment and get the same result?

Additional issues are:

Conduct control experiments - especially "double blind" experiments where the person taking measurements is not aware of the test and control subjects.

Check for confounding factors - separate the variables.

Common fallacies of logic and rhetoric

Ad hominem - attacking the arguer and not the argument.

Argument from "authority".

Argument from adverse consequences (putting pressure on the decision maker by pointing out dire consequences of an "unfavorable" decision).

Appeal to ignorance (absence of evidence is not evidence of absence).

Special pleading (typically referring to god's will).

Begging the question (assuming an answer in the way the question is phrased).

Observational selection (counting the hits and forgetting the misses).

Statistics of small numbers (such as drawing conclusions from inadequate sample sizes).

Misunderstanding the nature of statistics (President Eisenhower expressing astonishment and alarm on discovering that fully half of all Americans have below average intelligence!)

Inconsistency (e.g. military expenditures based on worst case scenarios but scientific projections on environmental dangers thriftily ignored because they are not "proved").

Non sequitur - "it does not follow" - the logic falls down.

Post hoc, ergo propter hoc - "it happened after so it was caused by" - confusion of cause and effect.

Meaningless question ("what happens when an irresistible force meets an immovable object?).

Excluded middle - considering only the two extremes in a range of possibilities (making the "other side" look worse than it really is).

Short-term v. long-term - a subset of excluded middle ("why pursue fundamental science when we have so huge a budget deficit?").

Slippery slope - a subset of excluded middle - unwarranted extrapolation of the effects (give an inch and they will take a mile).

Confusion of correlation and causation.

Caricaturing (or stereotyping) a position to make it easier to attack.

Suppressed evidence or half-truths.

Weasel words - for example, use of euphemisms for war such as "police action" to get around limitations on Presidential powers. "An important art of politicians is to find new names for institutions which under old names have become odious to the public"

(excerpted from The Planetary Society Australian Volunteer Coordinators Prepared by Michael Paine )

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